<p>Mo Chhu is a major river in Bhutan. The word "Chhu" means "river" or "water" in Dzongkha, the official national language in Bhutan. The river rises in Gasa Dzongkhag  near the border between Bhutan and Tibet. From there, the Mo Chhu flows generally southward to Punakha in central Bhutan, where it joins the Pho Chhu from the northeast. The confluence of the two streams is immediately below the Punakha Dzong, which is the winter home of the Dratshang Lhentshog  and the Je Khenpo.</p><br>
<p>The combined streams are then joined by the Dang Chhu near the town of Wangdue Phodrang, and the name of the river becomes the Puna Tsang Chhu. The river then flows through Dagana and Tsirang Districts. After leaving Bhutan near the town of Kalikhola, the river enters Assam in India and is known as the Sankosh. The Sankosh ultimately empties into the Brahmaputra.</p><br>
<p>Sankosh  is a river that rises in northern Bhutan and empties into the Brahmaputra in the state of Assam in India. In Bhutan, it is known as the Puna Tsang Chu below the confluences of several tributaries near the town of Wangdue Phodrang. The two largest tributaries are the Mo Chhu and Pho Chhu, which flow together at Punakha. The Punakha dzong, which is situated immediately above the confluence of the two rivers, is one of the most beautiful dzongs in Bhutan and the winter residence of the Dratshang Lhentshog. The upper reaches of the Pho Chhu are susceptible to ice blockages, and the dzong has been damaged on several occasions by glacial lake outburst floods. At Wangdue Phodrang, elevation 1,364 m, the river is joined by the west flowing Tang Chuu and it enters a precipitous gorge. The highway running south from Wangdue Phodrang to Dagana follows the river for much of its course. Near the town of Takshay is the confluence with the west flowing Hara Chhu. The last major Bhutanese tributary is the Daga Chhu.</p><br>
<p>Battleground National Cemetery is a military burial ground, located along Georgia Avenue near Fort Stevens, in Washington, D.C.&#39;s Brightwood neighborhood. The cemetery is managed by the National Park Service, together with other components of Rock Creek Park.</p><br>
<h2>Battle of Fort Stevens</h2><br>
<p>The Battle of Fort Stevens, which took place on July 11–12, 1864, marked the defeat of General Jubal Anderson Early&#39;s Confederate campaign to launch an offensive action against the national capital. During the battle, 59 soldiers were killed on the Union side. There were approximately 500 casualties on the Confederate side of the battle.</p><br>
<h2>Burials</h2><br>
<p>After the battle, Quartermaster General Montgomery C. Meigs seized 1 acre of farm land to use for burying the dead. Under direction from President Abraham Lincoln and Meigs, forty were buried on the evening of July 12 on the battlefield site. That night, Lincoln came to the site to dedicate it as the Battleground National Cemetery. It was declared that anyone who fought in the battle was permitted to be buried at the location. But only one veteran of the battle, Edward R. Campbell, was buried in the cemetery in March 1936 at the age of 92. Four of the family members (the mother and three children) that lived in the caretaker&#39;s house on the site are also buried at the cemetery. All of them died within five years of each other. The cemetery is now a closed site and no more burials are permitted.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the grave markers, the cemetery includes four monuments to units that fought at Fort Stevens, including the 25th New York Volunteer Cavalry, 98th Pennsylvania Infantry, 122nd New York Infantry, and the 150th Ohio National Guard.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>The piece of land was previously part of a fruit orchard owned by farmer James Malloy. When he returned to his land after the dust cleared from the battle, Malloy was upset that his land was taken and challenged the action. Through an act of Congress passed on February 22, 1867, the land was acquired and officially transferred to the government on July 23, 1868 with payment made to Malloy.</p><br>
<p>A superintendents lodge was built in 1871, using a basic stone design by General Montgomery Meigs that was a prototype for all national cemeteries. The lodge was built as a residence for the superintendent of the cemetery. The superintendents lodge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 4, 1980.</p><br>
<p>Battleground National Cemetery was administered by the United States Department of War until 1933-34, when it was transferred to the National Park Service. The cemetery was administratively listed on the National Register on October 15, 1966, and is one of the smallest national cemeteries.</p><br>
<p>In 2005, the DC Preservation League listed the cemetery as one of the most endangered historic sites in Washington, D.C. The National Park Service has been allocated funds under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 for restoration work at Battleground National Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>The Dumbarton Oaks Park is a public park, located in the 3100 block of R Street, Northwest, Washington, D.C., in the Georgetown neighborhood. Access is via</p><br>
<p>Lovers&#39; Lane from R Street, east of 32nd Street. It is located near Dumbarton Oaks, Montrose Park, and Oak Hill Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>It is part of the Georgetown Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Robert Woods Bliss and Mildred Barnes Bliss purchased the Dumbarton Oaks estate in 1920, and established the garden. The park is a naturalistic streamside garden area of 27 acres, beyond the 10 acre formal garden, designed by Beatrix Farrand. In 1940, the Blisses gifted Dumbarton Oaks Park to the National Park Service, turning over creative control and upkeep of the plantings located there. In 1998 and 1999, Student Conservation Association groups restored the south stream path. Dumbarton Oaks Park Conservancy has been formed to provide restoration.</p><br>
<p>The Petersen House is a 19th-century federal style row house located at 516 10th Street NW in Washington, D.C. On April 15, 1865, United States President Abraham Lincoln died there after being shot the previous evening at Ford&#39;s Theatre located across the street. The house was built in 1849 by William A. Petersen, a German tailor. Future Vice-President John C. Breckinridge, a friend of the Lincoln family, once rented this house in 1852. In 1865, it served as a boarding house. It has served as a museum since the 1930s.</p><br>
<h2>Lincoln assassination</h2><br>
<p>On the night of April 14, 1865, Lincoln and his wife Mary Todd were attending a performance of Our American Cousin when John Wilkes Booth, an actor and Southern sympathizer, entered the box and shot the President in the back of the head. Henry Rathbone and Clara Harris were also in the box with the Lincolns, and Rathbone suffered serious stab wounds while trying to prevent Booth&#39;s escape. Doctors including Charles Leale and Charles Sabin Taft examined Lincoln in the box before having him carried across the street to the Petersen House, where boarder Henry Safford directed them inside.</p><br>
<p>Almarin Cooley Richards, superintendent of the Washington Metropolitan Police, was attending the performance and immediately began investigations. From the back parlor of the house, Richards interviewed witnesses and ordered the arrest of Booth.</p><br>
<p>Physicians continually removed blood clots which formed over the wound and poured out the excess brain fluid and brain matter from where the bullet had entered Lincoln&#39;s head in order to relieve pressure on the brain. However, the external and internal hemorrhaging continued throughout the night.</p><br>
<p>During the night and early morning, guards patrolled outside to prevent onlookers from coming inside the house. Lincoln&#39;s Cabinet members, Generals, and various members of Congress were allowed to see the President.</p><br>
<p>Lincoln died in the house on April 15, 1865, at 7:22 a.m., aged 56. Booth was located in Virginia 11 days later and was shot by Union forces, dying two hours later. Individuals in the room when he died included his son Robert Todd Lincoln, Senator Charles Sumner, generals Henry Wager Halleck, Richard James Oglesby and Montgomery C. Meigs, and Secretary of War Edwin Stanton.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Since 1933, the National Park Service has maintained it as a historical museum, recreating the scene at the time of Lincoln&#39;s death. The bed that Lincoln occupied and other items from the bedroom had been bought by Chicago collector, Charles F. Gunther, and are now owned by and on display at the Chicago History Museum. However, replicas have taken their places. The bloodstained pillow and pillowcases are the ones used by Lincoln.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Petersen House is administered by the National Park Service as part of the Ford&#39;s Theatre National Historic Site. Usually the house is open to visitors daily from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Admission is free, but requires a time ticket.</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<p>The Stawamus Chief, officially Stawamus Chief Mountain , is a granite dome located adjacent to the town of Squamish, British Columbia, Canada. It towers over 700 m above the waters of nearby Howe Sound. It is often claimed to be the "second largest granite monolith in the world".</p><br>
<p>The Squamish, indigenous people from this area, consider the Chief to be a place of spiritual significance. The Squamish language name for the mountain is Siám Smánit (siám is usually translated as "chief" though it is really a social ranking), and their traditions say it is a longhouse transformed to stone by Xáays, as the Transformer Brothers are known in this language. The great cleft in the mountains cliff-face in Squamish legend is a mark of corrosion left by the skin of Sínulhka, a giant two-headed sea serpent.</p><br>
<p>The mountain gets its name from their village near its foot, Stawamus (St&#39;a7mes), as is also the case with the Stawamus River and Stawamus Lake, though the pronunciation of the village name is different than as commonly used in English ( is an approximation of the Squamish language, vs as commonly used in English).</p><br>
<h2>The park</h2><br>
<p>In 1997, the Stawamus Chief Provincial Park was established by the British Columbia Ministry of the Environment. The park is over 5 square kilometres in area and encompasses not only the Chief but also the Stawamus Squaw, a slightly smaller granitic dome located a short distance to the north-east. This was renamed Slhanay in 2009 due to the derogatory implications of the word "Squaw". Also featured in the park are a walk-in campground and a number of maintained hiking trails which lead through the forest of the Chief&#39;s "backside" to several summit areas.</p><br>
<p>In the spring of 2009, a new pedestrian bridge was opened across the highway. It provides access to the park from a new southbound parking lot in addition to linking the climbing areas of The Chief with those on the granite faces of Malamute Bluffs. This bridge (officially known as Stawamus Chief Pedestrian Overpass) was built as part of the Winter Olympic upgrades of the Sea to Sky Highway.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Chief is part of a medium-sized pluton of a granitic rock (granodiorite) that was initially formed in the early Cretaceous (approximately 100 million years ago) by the slow cooling and solidification of molten magma deep below the surface of the Earth. Exhumation of the granite body probably occurred mostly by erosion of overlying rocks over tens of millions of years, with glacial erosion processes dominating exhumation over the last 2.5 million years. Once exposed at the surface, the original granite body was shaped by glacial erosion, which is responsible for the tall steep walls that define the Chief, as well as the excavation of Howe Sound, a fjord. Classic hallmarks of glacial erosion are ubiquitous, especially polished, striated surfaces. Polish and striations observable at the very summit of the formation require that, at the peak of glaciation, the entire formation was buried under a substantial thickness of ice.</p><br>
<p>The striking gullies that separate and define the three summits of the Chief are the result of fracturing and mass-wasting of large blocks along a series of vertical, and roughly north-south oriented deep seated fracture sets (joints).</p><br>
<p>The Chief may be the root of an extinct volcano because no volcanic activity has occurred in the Squamish area from about 86 million years ago to the beginning of Garibaldi Volcanic Belt volcanism about 2-3 million years ago. In the Squamish area, Garibaldi Volcanic Belt volcanism ceased during or shortly after the end of the last ice age.</p><br>
<h2>Topography and features</h2><br>
<h3>Summits</h3><br>
<p>There are three main summit areas:</p><br>
<p>First Peak or the South Summit (610 m)</p><br>
<p>Second Peak or the Centre Summit (655 m)</p><br>
<p>Third Peak or the North Summit (702 m)</p><br>
<p>Each summit features an expanse of fine glacier-polished granite and views in all directions. Third Peak is a bit more remote and isolated and is less popular with tourists.</p><br>
<p>An additional summit area lies to the north of all the summits. This area is called the Zodiac Summit. Although it can be considered a sub-summit of Third Peak, it is perhaps the most isolated area of the Chief. No proper trail leads to the Zodiac Summit; there are only faint tracks here and there among the trees.</p><br>
<h3>Hiking trails</h3><br>
<p>All of the three main summits are accessible via the Chief&#39;s maintained backside hiking trails. These trails are steep and rugged. In several high places there are short sections of "trail" that are so steep or slippery, that chains and ladders have been bolted to the rock for aid. The main attraction at the chief is the large granite façade which is accessed by the chief trail or by rock climbing. The several peaks offer a view of the Sea to Sky highway 99 and the river below. The summits have no railings or safety installations, making it possible to fall off the face of the cliff.</p><br>
<h2>Characteristics</h2><br>
<h3>Gullies</h3><br>
<p>The three main summits of the Chief are separated by several deep clefts known as the gullies. These chasms are steep and are partially filled with debris, mostly talus and scree. They were apparently excavated primarily by glacier action.</p><br>
<p>South Gully: the Chief&#39;s biggest and most noticeable gully, it separates First Peak from Second Peak.</p><br>
<p>North Gully: a dark and narrow gully near the north end of the Chief, it separates Second Peak from the "Zodiac Summit".</p><br>
<p>North-North Gully: even darker and narrower, this gully separates the "Zodiac Summit" from Third Peak.</p><br>
<p>There is an additional smaller gully near the south end of the Chief called Bullethead Gully which somewhat separates the Bulletheads region from the rest of the Chief. This gully is very bushy and is much less dramatic than the main gullies mentioned above.</p><br>
<h3>The Apron</h3><br>
<p>The Apron is a vast sweep of lower-angle rock which rises like a wedge from the highway to about halfway up the Grand Wall near the Chief&#39;s approximate centre. There it meets with a rising ridge of rock known as the Squamish Buttress, and promptly terminates in the great chasm known as the South Gully.</p><br>
<h3>Rock faces</h3><br>
<p>The Chiefs summits are surrounded by sheer rock wall cliffs. They are typically high, exposed, and surprisingly varied in character. Several of the Chiefs more notable rock faces are as follows:</p><br>
<p>Grand Wall: the centrepiece of the Chief, this steep and pale wall rises over highway 99 just south of the Apron.</p><br>
<p>Bulletheads: a region of oddly rounded bulges near the southern end of the Chief.</p><br>
<p>Dihedral Wall: this featured expanse of rock is situated between the Grand Wall and Tantalus Wall. In the spring and early summer it is a nesting area for peregrine falcons.</p><br>
<p>Tantalus Wall: the sheer face separating the contrasting features of the Dihedral Wall and the Bulletheads. Also a nesting area for peregrine falcons.</p><br>
<p>Sheriff&#39;s Badge: a white-coloured, star-shaped exfoliation scar north-east of the Apron. Sometimes called "the Witch" or "the Bird" by local townsfolk.</p><br>
<p>Zodiac Wall: located at the northernmost end of the Chief, this rock face is dark, isolated, and seldom visited.</p><br>
<p>The Chief&#39;s rock faces, especially the Grand Wall, exhibit the unique textural patterns which result from the process of granitic exfoliation. This is the natural means by which large, high-quality granite formations weather, erode, and age. Rather than crumbling and slowly wearing away, large flakes of granite tend to shear off and drop from the face in layers. On impact with the ground below, the shattered flakes become boulders and talus.</p><br>
<p>Sometimes a flake will partially split away while remaining attached to the rock face. An excellent example of a partially detached flake on the Chief is the renowned Split Pillar on the Grand Wall. The Chief&#39;s rock faces are characterized by varied rock features including overhanging roofs, splitter cracks, rock chimneys, dihedrals, ledges, platforms, and lower angle slabs.</p><br>
<h3>The Black Dyke</h3><br>
<p>This feature divides the Grand Wall from the Dihedral Wall to the south. This feature is considerably younger than the pale granodiorite rock surrounding it. It formed by the splitting of the solid granodiorite along a vertical fracture, which created a conduit for basalt and andesite magmas, which may have fed volcanoes on the surface above the then-buried granitic rock. These younger magmas cooled quite quickly, which results in a very fine grained, almost glassy texture. The resulting dyke is now clearly visible from the Chief&#39;s main parking area.</p><br>
<h3>Forest</h3><br>
<p>At the base and around the perimeter of the Chief are thick forests. Although not exactly old growth these stands of trees are representative of pacific coastal temperate rain forest common in the area. Typical tree species are Douglas fir, western red cedar, Sitka spruce, and alder.</p><br>
<h3>Boulders</h3><br>
<p>Also at the base of the Chief&#39;s walls are a bewildering variety of medium-to-large size granite boulders. Once themselves part of the Chief, these boulders form groups which have been carefully explored by bouldering enthusiasts. Some of the boulders are so large as to seem like small cliffs in their own right. The largest is the Cacodemon Boulder at the base of the Grand Wall, an individual chunk of rock as big as a small apartment building.</p><br>
<h2>Rock climbing</h2><br>
<p>Because of the Chief and several other high-quality climbing areas in the vicinity, Squamish has become a world-class rock climbing destination. Squamish is sometimes referred to as "Yosemite North". In terms of structure, composition, and quality of the granitic rock, the Chief reportedly resembles Half Dome in the Yosemite Valley.</p><br>
<p>Kevin McLane, longtime rock climber and Squamish guidebook author, describes climbing at the Chief thus: "immense vertical walls, long cool slabs, sinuous dykes, and beautiful cracks offer a variety of climbing that is hard to match anywhere." Almost every style of rock climbing at almost every possible skill level can be practiced here, including Traditional climbing, sport climbing, aid climbing, and bouldering. Since the Chief is practically at sea-level, the only climbing styles not normally represented are alpine climbing and ice climbing, though ample opportunities exist for these pursuits in the surrounding Coast Mountains.</p><br>
<p>An in the Vancouver Sun describes a typical day out by some climbers going up the Stawamus Chief.</p><br>
<p>The first epic ascent of The Grand Wall was made in 1961 by Ed Cooper and Jim Baldwin.</p><br>
<p>Rock climber Peter Croft began what continues to be a long and illustrious climbing career in Squamish in the late 1970s. He astounded the climbing community by putting up a number of bold new free climbing routes on the Chief which, at the time, pushed the limits of what people thought was possible. More recently, Brad Zdanivsky became the first quadriplegic ever to reach the summit on 31 July 2005. In the summer of 2006, Sonnie Trotter established what was at the time considered to be the hardest traditionally protected single rock pitch in North America, and possibly the world: Cobra Crack (5.14).</p><br>
<h2>Slacklining</h2><br>
<p>Slacklining has found its way on to the Chief more recently than rock climbing. Slackliners set up across the gullies of the Chief. On August 2, 2015, Spencer Seabrooke broke the standing free-solo world record for walking unteathered across a 64-metre gap. There are over seven different lines that slackliners use in various locations on the Chief.</p><br>
<p>Wills Creek is a 38.6 mi tributary of the North Branch Potomac River in Pennsylvania and Maryland in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Wills Creek drops off the Allegheny Mountains of southeastern Somerset County, Pennsylvania, and enters the North Branch Potomac River at Cumberland, Maryland.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>Brush Creek (Wills Creek)</p><br>
<p>Little Wills Creek</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Wills Creek was named after Wills Town, a former settlement of the Shawnee Indians at the site of Cumberland, Maryland. After the Shawnee deserted this region, an Indian named Will lived a short distance from the site of the old Shawnee town at the mouth of Caiuctucuc Cr. At the time of the coming of the first white settlers he was living in a cabin on the mountain side. The creek, mountain, and town were afterward named for him. "Wills creek" is noted on the maps of Lewis Evans (1755) and Scull (1759, 1770), and on the map in Christopher Gist&#39;s journal. (See Hodge, 1912)</p><br>
<h2>Cumberland flood control system</h2><br>
<p>In the 1950s, the city of Cumberland and the United States Army Corps of Engineers embarked upon an $18.5 million flood-control program along a stretch of Wills Creek bordering the city. The project was one of the most costly public works projects in the city&#39;s history. Disastrous floods from Wills Creek had ravaged Cumberland, particularly in 1924, 1936, and 1942, and the Army Corp of Engineers designed a system that would prevent property damage caused by the high waters. It began just upstream from the bridge at USA Route 40, where the corps paved the bottom of Wills Creek, constructing concrete walls along its banks, and with the building of a sophisticated pumping system to prevent the watershed from flooding during heavy rain. The work took a decade to complete and was finished in 1959. It has successfully prevented flooding ever since.</p><br>
<p>The Pisa  is a river in north-eastern Poland with a length of 80.4 km. It belongs to the Masurian Lake District of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship. The Pisa river flows from Lake Roś near the town of Pisz, and is a tributary of the Narew, connecting the Lakeland region with the Vistula. The Pisz Forest borders the river on its west bank.</p><br>
<p>The name Pisa comes from the ancient Prussian language word "pisa", meaning "swamp." The name dates back to the Galindae tribe who lived in the area before the arrival of the Teutonic Knights, who referred to the Pisa as the Galinde. In November 1982 the Polish Centre for Research and Control of the Environment (Ośrodek Badań i Kontroli Środowiska) in Łomża included Pisa in the first class category for purity of its water.</p><br>
<p>Pisa is a picturesque lowland river with its most scenic stretches around its upper and lower reaches. In the middle part, the river flows through boggy meadows. Along its entire length Pisa is navigable. Considerably deep (1–1.8 m), it has the shallowest depth at its mouth, at the Narew river. Pisa is strongly meandering with the average descent of 32 cm per kilometer. Canoeing down the river from Pisz to Nowogród takes about 4–5 days.</p><br>
<h2>Bibliography</h2><br>
<p>W. Brenda, D. Serafin, Piskie ścieżki Rowerowe Informator Turystyczny, Pisz Town Centre, pp. 34–38</p><br>
<p></text></p><br>
<p></revision></p><br>
<p>Val Camonica  is one of the largest valleys of the central Alps, in eastern Lombardy, Italy. It extends about 90 km from the Tonale Pass to Corna Trentapassi, in the commune of Pisogne near Lake Iseo. It has an area of about 1,335 km&sup2; and 118,323 inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>The River Oglio runs through its full length, rising at Ponte di Legno and flowing into Lake Iseo between Pisogne and Costa Volpino.</p><br>
<p>Almost all of the valley is included in the administrative territory of the province of Brescia, except for Lovere, Rogno, Costa Volpino and the Val di Scalve, which belong to the province of Bergamo.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Val Camonica is derived from the Latin Vallis Camunnorum, "Valley of the Camunni."</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Territory</h3><br>
<p>Val Camonica can be divided into three main areas:</p><br>
<p>Lower Val Camonica: a flat area of meadows and fields, starting from the shores of Lake Iseo and extending to the transverse ridge of Bienno, sometimes referred to as the Breno Threshold.</p><br>
<p>Middle Val Camonica: extending from the Breno Threshold to the municipality of Sonico Edolo. The lower middle valley extends from Breno to Sellero, while the upper middle valley starts at the narrow gorge at Cedegolo and extends to Sonico Edolo.</p><br>
<p>High Val Camonica: This part of the valley follows the Periadriatic Seam, and is oriented from east to west. Starting in the Val di Corteno, it continues as to the town of Ponte di Legno at the top of the valley. Its climate is similar to that of central Valtellina.</p><br>
<p>The valley is bounded by these borders:</p><br>
<h3>Hydrography</h3><br>
<p>Val Camonica is traversed by the River Oglio, the fifth longest river in Italy, which rises at Ponte di Legno from the confluence of the Frigidolfo and Narcanello rivers. It flows into Lake Iseo between the municipalities of Pisogne and Costa Volpino.</p><br>
<p>Numerous streams, some of them seasonal, descend from the mountainsides and flow into the Oglio.</p><br>
<p>At high altitude there are many alpine lakes, including Lago Moro, as well as many artificial reservoirs, such as the Lago d&#39;Arno.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Val Camonica likely became habitable only around 15,000 years ago, at the end of last Ice Age, with the melting of the glacier that first carved out the valley. It is likely that the first humans visited the valley in epipaleolithic times, and appear to have settled by the Neolithic period. When the Ancient Romans extended their dominions north of the River Po, they encountered a people called the Camunni, of unknown origin, populating the valley. About 300,000 petroglyphs survive from this period. By the end of the first century BC, the Valle Camonica was ruled by Ancient Rome, which established the city of Cividate Camuno, with baths, an amphitheater and a large temple dedicated to Minerva.</p><br>
<p>During the Middle Ages, numerous clashes between the Guelphs and Ghibellines took place in this region. The Guelphs supported the power of the Bishop of Brescia and the papacy, while the Ghibellines sided with the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1287 the Val Camonica rebelled against control by Brescia and sided with the Visconti, lords of Milan, who extended their control over the area during the 14th century. From 1427 to 1454 there were numerous battles between Milan and the Republic of Venice for the control of the valley. Ultimately the valley came under the control of Venice. During the following centuries, the civilian population grew and engaged in the iron trade.</p><br>
<p>Val Camonica was separated from Venice after Venice was conquered by Napoleon in 1797. After the deposition of Napoleon, the area was controlled by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1859, Val Camonica was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. During World War I battle lines stretched along its eastern border, across the Adamello Group. The battles fought in this area are known as the White War in the Adamello.</p><br>
<p>In 1955, the National Park of Naquane stone carvings at Capo di Ponte was created by the Archaeological Administration of Lombardy.</p><br>
<h2>Monuments and places of interest</h2><br>
<h3>UNESCO Site</h3><br>
<p>Val Camonica is home to the greatest complex of rock drawings in Europe, containing approximately 300,000 petroglyphs from the epipaleolithic era to the middle ages.</p><br>
<p>Parco nazionale delle incisioni rupestri di Naquane in Capo di Ponte</p><br>
<p>Parco archeologico nazionale dei massi di Cemmo</p><br>
<p>Parco archeologico comunale di Seradina-Bedolina in Capo di Ponte</p><br>
<p>Parco archeologico di Asinino-Anvòia in Ossimo</p><br>
<p>Parco archeologico comunale di Luine in Darfo Boario Terme</p><br>
<p>Parco archeologico comunale di Sellero</p><br>
<p>Parco archeologico comunale di Sonico</p><br>
<p>Riserva naturale Incisioni rupestri di Ceto, Cimbergo e Paspardo in Nadro</p><br>
<h3>Medieval villages</h3><br>
<p>Bienno, recognised as one of the Most Beautiful Villages of Italy</p><br>
<p>Lovere, also recognised as one of the Most Beautiful Villages of Italy</p><br>
<p>Pescarzo (Capo di Ponte), a characteristic small town.</p><br>
<h3>Castles</h3><br>
<p>Castle of Breno, the largest castle in Val Camonica</p><br>
<p>Castle of Gorzone, home of the Federici family, standing on a small hill next to the Dezzo torrent</p><br>
<p>Castle of Cimbergo, in the valley of the Re, dominates the middle Valley</p><br>
<p>Castle of Lozio, the fortress where the Lozio Massacre occurred</p><br>
<p>Castle of Mù, the Federici bastion in the upper valley, of which only the foundations remain</p><br>
<h3>Roman city</h3><br>
<p>Theatre and Anphitheater at Cividate Camuno</p><br>
<p>Temple of Minerva at Breno</p><br>
<h3>Mountain excursions</h3><br>
<p>CAI paths in the Parco dell&#39;Adamello</p><br>
<p>First World War (so-called "Guerra Bianca in Adamello") trench at Vezza d&#39;Oglio</p><br>
<h3>Roman Baths</h3><br>
<p>Boario Terme</p><br>
<p>Angolo Terme</p><br>
<h3>Museums and theme parks</h3><br>
<p>Parco tematico Archeopark, Darfo Boario Terme</p><br>
<p>Museo etnografico del ferro, delle arti e tradizioni popolari, Bienno</p><br>
<p>Museo Civico Camuno, Breno</p><br>
<p>Museo didattico di arte e vita preistorica, Capo di Ponte</p><br>
<p>Museo didattico della riserva, Nadro</p><br>
<p>Museo archeologico di Valle Camonica, Cividate Camuno</p><br>
<p>Mostra museo Camillo Golgi, Corteno Golgi</p><br>
<p>Museo etnografico, Ossimo</p><br>
<p>Museo parrocchiale d&#39;arte sacra, Ponte di Legno</p><br>
<p>Museo della Guerra Bianca in Adamello, Temù</p><br>
<h3>Notable sanctuaries and churches</h3><br>
<p>Chiesa di Santa Maria della Neve in Pisogne</p><br>
<p>Chiesa di Sant&#39;Antonio in Breno</p><br>
<p>Chiesa di Santa Maria Annunziata in Bienno</p><br>
<p>Santuario del Cristo Re in Bienno</p><br>
<p>Chiesa di Santa Maria Assunta in Esine</p><br>
<p>Monastero di San Salvatore in Capo di Ponte</p><br>
<p>Oratorio dei Disciplini in Montecchio</p><br>
<p>Pieve di San Siro in Cemmo</p><br>
<p>Santuario della Via Crucis in Cerveno (Sacri Monti)</p><br>
<h3>Winter sports</h3><br>
<p>Winter sports Centers at Ponte di Legno, Borno, Montecampione, Aprica and Val Palot</p><br>
<h2>Photo gallery</h2><br>
<p>The Taunton State Hospital is a psychiatric hospital located on Danforth Street in Taunton, Massachusetts. Established in 1854, it was originally known as the State Lunatic Hospital at Taunton. It was the second state asylum in Massachusetts. Most of the original part of the facility was built in a unique and rare neo-classical style designed by architects Boyden & Ball. It is also a Kirkbride Plan hospital and is located on a large 154 acre farm along the Mill River.</p><br>
<p>The complex was expanded at various times to include over forty buildings and structures. The main part of the hospital (known as "the Kirkbride Building") closed in 1975, and the buildings fell into disrepair. In 1994, the property was added to the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district. In 1999, the main dome of the administration building collapsed. In 2006, a large part of the historic complex was destroyed by fire. In 2009, the remaining parts were demolished. However, many of the newer buildings on the campus remain.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1851, the Massachusetts General Court appointed a commission to find a site for a new asylum to relieve the pressure of a rising patient population from its only facility in Worcester. The new hospital at Taunton opened in April 1854. The large sprawling campus located on a hill offered fresh air and sunlight, following Kirkbride&#39;s concept for treating mental health patients. The complex was expanded in the early 1870s and again between 1887 and 1906. From the 1930s, juvenile facilities, crisis centers, sick wards, and group homes were added.</p><br>
<p>One of the buildings most beautiful features was its breezeways, which were added in the 1890s to connect the end of the wards to the hospitals infirmary buildings. Its distinct cupolas, large dome, cast-iron capitals, and window bar gave this building its own very unusual personality.</p><br>
<p>In 1975, the main part of the hospital was closed and abandoned. In 1999, the large dome which towered over the hospital&#39;s administration building collapsed. Then on the night of March 19, 2006, a massive fire broke out in the center of the building, which included the administration and theater. Sections damaged by fire were then leveled, leaving only the decaying wings of the Kirkbride Building.</p><br>
<p>In May 2009, demolition of the remaining historic sections of the Kirkbride Building began. The facility had numerous architectural features that were salvaged and sold to individuals and companies throughout the United States, including architectural granite, bricks, timbers, iron gates, vintage plumbing and lighting fixtures, furniture, and slate roofing tiles. The project was completed in early 2010.</p><br>
<h2>Notable patients</h2><br>
<p>Thomas Hubbard Sumner, a sea captain known for developing the celestial navigation method known as the Sumner line or line of position.</p><br>
<p>Jane Toppan, a sociopathic serial killer.</p><br>
<p>Lizzie Borden often talked about being held in the asylum. However, she was never admitted and is only known as being held in the jail, which was on Hodges Ave near the hospital, during the trial.</p><br>
<h2>Recent history</h2><br>
<p>In the early 1990s, a $19 million capital improvement plan was implemented by the state to improve the still-operating portions of the campus. In early 2012, the state announced the closure of the remaining parts of the facility containing 169 beds. A plan to keep a portion of the facility open was vetoed by Governor Deval Patrick in July 2012.</p><br>
<p>Taunton State Hospital remains open and houses 48 psychiatric beds, the Women&#39;s Recovery from Addiction Program, a residential program under the Department of Youth Services, and a substance abuse program administered by High Point Treatment Center. There is also a greenhouse on the campus that is staffed by patients and sells a variety of plants and seasonal produce to the public.</p><br>
<p>. See User:AnomieBOT/docs/TemplateSubster for info.</comment></p><br>
<p>From its source at Losheimergraben on the Belgian-German border, it flows roughly west about 50 km, across the south of the Hautes Fagnes region.</p><br>
<p>It passes through the town of Malmedy, and the artificial lakes of Robertville and of Bütgenbach are formed by dams on the Warche.</p><br>
<p>It is a right tributary of the river Amblève, which it joins east of Stavelot.</p><br>
<p>In the past the Warche used to flow northward from Bévercé, following the current Trô Maret valley, to continue through the current Eau Rouge valley. This last valley is much larger than can be expected from such a small flow, still representing the original Warche valley. In that time the Warche confluenced with the Amblève at Stavelot. Later on, probably during the last ice age the Warche adopted its current position, flowing through the Malmedy graben.</p><br>
<p>Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site is a recreated brownstone at 28 East 20th Street, between Broadway and Park Avenue South, in the borough of Manhattan in New York City.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The house that originally stood on the site was built in 1848 and was bought by the Roosevelts in 1854. Theodore Roosevelt was born there on October 27, 1858, and lived in the house with his family until 1872, when the neighborhood began to become more commercial and the family moved uptown to West 57th Street.</p><br>
<p>The original building was demolished in 1916 to make way for retail space,</p><br>
<p>The house was rededicated in 1923 and was subsequently refurbished with many furnishings from the original house by the Presidents widow, Edith, and his two sisters. The widow and sisters also supplied information about the interiors appearance during Roosevelt&#39;s residency.</p><br>
<p>The Theodore Roosevelt Association donated the birthplace to the National Park Service in 1963. As a National Historic Site, it was automatically listed on the National Register of Historic Places at its creation on October 15, 1966. It now serves as a museum dedicated to the life and contributions of the 26th President of the United States.</p><br>
<h2>Roosevelt's recollection</h2><br>
<p>Roosevelt described his memories of the home&#39;s interior in Chapter 1 of his 1913 autobiography:</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The three-story brownstone house features a mansard roof, and a high stoop above the basement. The hooded moldings above the windows and doorway are in the Gothic Revival style.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, Theodate Pope Riddle was recognized for her work rebuilding the home, a winning site of Built by Women New York City, a competition launched by the Beverly Willis Architecture Foundation during the fall of 2014 to identify outstanding and diverse sites and spaces designed, engineered and built by women.</p><br>
<p>Taunton City Hall is an historic city hall containing the offices of the municipal government for the city of Taunton, Massachusetts, including the office of the mayor and the city council chambers. The building was originally constructed in 1848, and expanded in 1896. It is a contributing property to the Church Green national historic district, located at the intersection of USA Route 44 and State Route 140. An arson fire in 2010 caused severe damage and forced the building to close.</p><br>
<h2>Historical notes</h2><br>
<p>The current city hall is located on land once owned by Marcus Morton, former governor of Massachusetts. Construction of the original building began in March 1848 and was completed in November of that same year. In 1853, a second story was added to the building. The original brick building was designed by Earl E. Ryder.</p><br>
<p>Taunton High School was located in the second floor of city hall between 1854 and 1885.</p><br>
<p>In 1889, a memorial plaque listing the names of Tauntonians killed in action during the American Civil War was dedicated inside Taunton City Hall.</p><br>
<p>In July 1896 the original castle-like facade of city hall was removed, and replaced with a large granite addition designed in the Renaissance revival style by architect J.Merrill Brown at a cost of $45,000.</p><br>
<p>Taunton City Hall also contains memorial plaques to city victims of World War I and World War II.</p><br>
<h2>2010 arson fire</h2><br>
<p>On the morning of August 17, 2010, an arsonist broke into the fourth-floor attic and set the building ablaze. Efforts to put out the fire caused considerable water damage to saturated walls and ceilings, nearly all of which were later torn apart to prevent mold. Estimates to repair City Hall have ranged from $15 million to $23 million. City operations were moved temporarily to Oak Street, in what was the Lowell M. Maxham School.</p><br>
<p>In December 2014, the Star Theater/Leonard Block building, adjacent to City Hall, was demolished, in hopes that the demolition would make it easier to repair City Hall.</p><br>
<p>In March 2016, the Taunton City Council was working out funding to build a new, permanent City Hall.</p><br>
<p>Great Mell Fell  is an isolated hill or fell in the English Lake District, north of Ullswater and adjacent to the Eastern Fells. It rises from a level plain to a height of 537 m. Its top is an excellent viewpoint for many of the surrounding higher fells. The fell is now owned and managed by the National Trust and offers a place of quiet refuge.</p><br>
<p>The fell was once well wooded, and retains a good covering of trees on the lower slopes, as well as scattered larches and pines higher up. Its rock is unusual for the Lake District, a reddish conglomerate of Devonian age, which has been eroded to form a rounded hill with smooth outlines and no rocky crags.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>Great Mell Fell is an isolated hill which rises abruptly from a wide expanse of marshy lowland to a height of 537 m. The fell has smooth, rounded outlines with no crags. Rock is represented only by a number of large erratic boulders, mainly on the north slopes, but also by the Cloven Stone near a barn to the south of the fell.</p><br>
<p>The hill is triangular in plan (indeed, it is almost the shape of a broad arrow-head) with the apex pointing west, down the steep "nose" of the fell, and with the gentler, broader eastern slopes divided by two shallow valleys which drain into the Wham Sike and Routing Gill Beck.</p><br>
<p>Great Mell Fell lies on the watershed between the Derwent river system to the west and the Eden system to the east. This watershed is formed by a low ridge, barely perceptible in places, which connects the Northern and Eastern Fells. From Bowscale Fell it runs across Eycott Hill to Great Mell Fell, then over Cockley Moor to High Brow and up the north-east ridge of Great Dodd, to join the main ridge on the Helvellyn range. Thus the eastern sides of the fell drain eventually into the River Eden via Dacre Beck and the River Eamont, while the western parts drain through Keswick via Trout Beck, the River Glenderamackin and the River Greta to the Derwent.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Great Mell Fell is a quiet place of refuge within the surrounding agricultural land, for wildlife as well as for walkers. The sheltered lower eastern slopes are well covered by mixed woods of oak, rowan, birch, holly and Scots pine. Within the trees badgers and roe deer live, and green woodpeckers nest. It is said that the last wild cat in Cumberland was snared here in the nineteenth century.</p><br>
<p>Higher up the fell an old planting of Scots pine straddles the eastern ridge, and contorted wind-blown larches grow higher still, some blown almost horizontal. The trees give a glimpse of what other fells may have looked like in better-wooded times. A nineteenth-century guidebook claims that larch was planted all over the fell. However the fell’s name suggests that it was treeless in first millennium Celtic-speaking times.</p><br>
<p>Clumps of tough grass and occasional clumps of heather cover the highest parts, where occasional red grouse may nest.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit is crowned by a low mound, marked as a tumulus on the Ordnance Survey 1:25,000 Explorer map.</p><br>
<p>The isolated position of the fell makes it a splendid viewpoint. Blencathra and the Dodds dominate the view towards the west, while to the south is an impressive vista of both the Far Eastern and the Eastern Fells, as far as Red Screes and the Kirkstone Pass. To the east, beyond Little Mell Fell there is a clear view across the Eden Valley to the north Pennines.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Great Mell Fell is now owned and managed by the National Trust. The whole fell is now Open Access land.</p><br>
<p>Access to the fell may be gained from near Brownrigg Farm on the minor road between Matterdale End and the A66 road, or from just south of Troutbeck on the A5091 road, along the disused rifle range. Paths just inside the boundary fence allow a circuit of the fell. The western end of the fell offers a very steep but grassy climb to the top. A gentler ascent follows a used path from the south-eastern corner and along the east ridge.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>There is a disused rifle range to the north-west of the fell. The target control building may still be seen. This was in use by the War Department (now the Ministry of Defence) during the war years and into the 1950s. As a result, access to the whole fell was prohibited at the time by red danger signs. Alfred Wainwright includes a drawing of one of the signs in his 1955 guide book, but he himself apparently ignored the warnings and explored the fell anyway.</p><br>
<p>The fell is now in the ownership of the National Trust and access is open to all.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Both Great and Little Mell Fells are unique among the fells of the Lake District by being composed of the Mell Fell Conglomerate, a sedimentary rock formed from deposits of sand and gravel in alluvial fans and braided river channels in a desert environment. The rock contains no fossils. The stones in the conglomerate came from the erosion of both the Borrowdale Volcanic Group and the Windermere Supergroup. The reddish-coloured rock appears to date from the late Devonian Period, sometime around 375 million years ago. The erosion of this conglomerate has formed the smooth and rounded outlines that are distinctive of the two Mell Fells. While there are no crags on Great Mell Fell, boulders of the conglomerate may be seen in places, especially on the north slope, and it may also be seen in the two stream beds.</p><br>
<p>This Devonian conglomerate rests on the Birker Fell Andesite Formation, a thick sequence of andesite lava flows from the Ordovician Period, about 450 million years ago, and part of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group. This rock may be seen at the foot of the fell in the south-east corner, where a small quarry (at the beginning of the path along the south side of the fell) has extracted a little of this andesite.</p><br>
<p>Rocks of the Devonian Period are also referred to as the Old Red Sandstone. These should be distinguished from the younger New Red Sandstone of the Permian Period, found nearby in Penrith and the Eden Valley.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Mell Fell is found in the earlier form Melfel (1279) and is probably derived from the Brittonic (Cumbric) word męl (c.f. Welsh moel), a bare hill, with Fell as a later addition.</p><br>
<p>Fell is a local dialect word with several meanings, from either Old Norse fell, hill, mountain, or Old Norse fjall, mountainous country. Fell is very common in Lake District place-names, some of which, like Mell Fell, are ancient, though many others are much more modern.</p><br>
<p>The two Mell Fells have been distinguished as Great and Little since at least the fifteenth century, but Greenwood&#39;s map of 1823 distinguishes them as West and East Mell Fell.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>The Sacramento Mountains are a mountain range in the south-central part of the USA state of New Mexico, lying just east of Alamogordo in Otero County . From north to south, the Sacramento Mountains extend for 85 mi, and from east to west they encompass 42 mi.</p><br>
<p>The Sacramentos can be divided into two sections: a main, northern section, encompassing most of the land area and all of the terrain above 7,500 ft, and a smaller southeastern section, contiguous with the Guadalupe Mountains. Neighboring ranges and landforms include the Tularosa Basin, immediately to the west of the main section of the range; Sierra Blanca and the Capitan Mountains to the northwest and northeast; the Border Hills and the western edge of the broad Pecos River valley to the east; the Guadalupe Mountains to the southeast; and Otero Mesa, which lies south of the main section and southwest of the southeastern section. The Rio Tularosa and the Rio Ruidoso (and hence USA Route 70) separate the Sacramentos from Sierra Blanca and the Capitan Mountains.</p><br>
<p>The western edge of the main section of the Sacramento Mountains forms a series of dramatic escarpments leading up to a high ridge, which includes the highest named point in the range, Cathey Peak, 9,645 feet (2,940 m). From this ridge the mountains slope gently down to the east, merging gradually with the plains to the west of Artesia. There are actually two unnamed highpoints of the range, both approx 9,695 ft. One is near Sunspot above Corral Canyon and FR 64. The second highpoint is on the crest of Benson Ridge.</p><br>
<p>The range is a wide east-dipping fault block, made up almost entirely of limestone. Gypsum deposits washed from the range are a main source of the gypsum sand that makes up the dunes in White Sands National Monument. The Sacramento Mountains form the easternmost part of the rift system centered on the rift valley of the Rio Grande. The rock strata in the Sacramentos were originally contiguous with those of the San Andres Mountains on the other side of the Tularosa Basin, and have been separated because of down-faulting of the basin. Unlike the Sacramento Mountains, the neighboring Sierra Blanca is an extrusive igneous complex.</p><br>
<p>Most of the main section of the Sacramento Mountains are part of the Lincoln National Forest, though the northern part of the range is included in the Mescalero Apache Indian Reservation. Evidence of Apache presence dates back to the fifteenth century. The range includes the town of Cloudcroft, a popular resort; the town of Ruidoso, also popular for recreation, lies on its northern edge. The range also includes the National Solar Observatory on Sacramento Peak, midway down the western ridge, just southwest of Cathey Peak. There are numerous hiking trails in the portion of the range that lies within the Lincoln National Forest, there is officially designated wilderness.</p><br>
<p>The mountains are the only home of the Sacramento prickly poppy (Argemone pinnatisecta), a federally listed endangered plant species, and the Sacramento Mountains thistle (Cirsium vinaceum), a threatened species.</p><br>
<p>Princeton Terrace Club is one of eleven current eating clubs at Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. Terrace Club was founded in 1904 and is located at 62 Washington Road. The club is the sole Princeton eating club located off Prospect Avenue.</p><br>
<h2>Membership and culture</h2><br>
<p>Terrace&#39;s motto has been "Food=Love" since the mid-eighties. The food is served cafeteria-style and is famous for being more "vegetarian friendly" than other clubs. Members of Terrace often refer to the club as "Terrace F. Club" or "TFC". Other nicknames include "the mother," "mother Terrace," or "the womb," and members often refer to themselves as "Terrans".</p><br>
<p>Weekend events at Terrace often include concerts of indie-scene bands from a variety of genres, including rock, hip-hop, salsa, jazz, and electronica. Many notable artists and groups, including former club member Stanley Jordan, Flipper (band), Phil Lesh, Yo La Tengo, GWAR, Blues Traveler (Summer 87), ESG (band), Bim Skala Bim, Elliott Smith, Run DMC, Modest Mouse, The Flaming Lips, Vampire Weekend, Frightened Rabbit, Girl Talk, GZA, Immortal Technique, Stereolab, Snarky Puppy and Tortoise have played at Terrace, some before they were nationally known. Terrace also hosts the Queer Radicals annual Drag Ball in October or November.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>As was then common practice for newly founded eating clubs, when Terrace Club began in 1904, the members dined in a building on Olden Street known as "The Incubator". This small structure had previously been the original home of Cap & Gown, and had been relocated to Olden Street from Cap&#39;s current location. It served as a temporary home for many eating clubs while their own buildings were under construction or being renovated.</p><br>
<p>In 1906, the club relocated to the current Washington Road location, which was occupied by a house in the Colonial Revival style which had formerly belonged to faculty member John Grier Hibben. This building was remodeled by architect Frederick Stone in the 1920s to the current configuration with its Tudor-style exterior.</p><br>
<p>A tea party at Terrace in 1936 is credited as the birthplace of the idea for the short-lived Veterans of Future Wars, an organization that satirized the acceleration of bonus payments to World War I veterans by demanding that its young members be similarly paid for the services they would render their country in conflicts to come.</p><br>
<p>In 1967, Terrace became the first club to abandon the Bicker process. Terrace Club and Colonial Club were the first clubs to accept women following the University&#39;s decision to admit women in 1969. In 2011, Terrace became the first club to offer membership to graduate students.</p><br>
<p>From 1977 until 1984, many of the sign-in clubs faltered amid low membership numbers, and the graduate board seriously considered closing Terrace in 1983. As an attempt to attract new members Chef Larry Frazer began cooking vegetarian meals, an entirely new concept on campus at that time. Frazer was married in Terrace Club in 1982 with the officers acting as attendants and guitarist extaordinaire Stanley Jordan as the musical performer. Frazer later moved on to become chef at Campus Club at the short-lived DEC and as the Executive Catering Chef for the University itself. Continuing his long relationship with the eating clubs, he later remarried in 2005 at Cap and Gown.</p><br>
<p>Much of the reputation Terrace enjoys today grew out the leadership and love of the late Barton R. Rouse, the creative force behind Terraces parties and excellent food. Frazer had hired Rouse originally to serve as sous chef in 1984 and he later succeeded him as head chef for the club. Barton was the originator of the clubs Food=Love motto and brought an imaginative flair to his job, including the creation of themed meals and parties which soon became a hallmark of the club. Rouse served in this role until his death in 1994.</p><br>
<h2>Notable traditions</h2><br>
<p>Many Terrace members eat 4 meals per day Sunday-Tuesday. This "4th Course", or "4C", was initiated by culinary icon and recent Terrace alumnus Chris St. John, who served as the club&#39;s President in 2014. 4C meals are unique in that they are prepared for students, by students, and consist largely of "fried stuff."</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>Harold Medina 1909 - Lawyer and Judge notable for hearing landmark cases of conspiracy and treason</p><br>
<p>William H. Scheide 36 - Musician, philanthropist, and humanitarian. Relocated the Scheide Library, "probably the finest private library in existence in the world," to Princetons Firestone Library. A primary funder of Brown vs. Board of Education.</p><br>
<p>Mel Ferrer &#39;39 - Actor, Film Director and Producer</p><br>
<p>Russell E. Train &#39;41 - President of World Wildlife Fund, 1978-1985</p><br>
<p>Warren Eginton &#39;45 - Senior USA District judge for District of Connecticut</p><br>
<p>Galway Kinnell &#39;48 - Poet, translator, and author</p><br>
<p>Richard Riordan &#39;52 - former mayor of Los Angeles</p><br>
<p>Alan Blinder &#39;67 - former Vice Chairman of the USA Federal Reserve and professor of economics and public affairs at Princeton University</p><br>
<p>Madison Smartt Bell &#39;79 - Novelist</p><br>
<p>Stanley Jordan &#39;81 - jazz guitarist</p><br>
<p>Douglas Rushkoff &#39;83 - Author and media theorist</p><br>
<p>Walter Kirn &#39;83 - Novelist and Literary Critic</p><br>
<p>Howard Gordon &#39;84 - TV writer, producer, and showrunner</p><br>
<p>Jonathan Ames 86/87 - writer, raconteur & performance artist, creator of HBOs &#39;Bored to Death</p><br>
<p>Nils Muižnieks &#39;86 - human rights activist and political scientist, Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights since 1 April 2012</p><br>
<p>Todd Wider &#39;86 - plastic surgeon and Emmy Award winning film producer</p><br>
<p>Jack Weiss &#39;86 - former Los Angeles City Council member</p><br>
<p>Theodore Zoli &#39;88 - American structural engineer, and a leading designer of cable-stayed bridges. 2009 MacArthur Fellows Program</p><br>
<p>E. Randol Schoenberg &#39;88 - a USA attorney, based in Los Angeles, California. Successful case in Supreme Court of the United States Republic of Austria v. Altmann in 2004. President of the Los Angeles Museum of the Holocaust.</p><br>
<p>Clifford J. Levy &#39;89 - Two-time winner of the Pulitzer Prize, in 2003 and 2011, for the New York Times,</p><br>
<p>Mohsin Hamid &#39;93 - Author</p><br>
<p>Peter Moskos 94 - Author of &#39;Cop in the Hood</p><br>
<p>Tim Ferriss 00 - Entrepreneur, Investor & Author of &#39;The 4-Hour Workweek</p><br>
<p>Jonathan Safran Foer &#39;00 - author</p><br>
<p>Rancho San Antonio, also known as the Peralta Grant, was a 44,800 acre land grant by Governor Pablo Vicente de Solá, the last Spanish governor of California, to Don Luís María Peralta, a sergeant in the Spanish Army and later, commissioner of the Pueblo of San José, in recognition of his forty years of service. The grant, issued on August 3, 1820, embraced the sites of the cities of San Leandro, Oakland, Alameda, Emeryville, Piedmont, Berkeley, and Albany.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Luís María Peralta never lived on the rancho himself, but his four sons and their families did. With their wives, families, landless Mexican laborers, and surrounding native peoples, the Peralta sons established the first Spanish-speaking communities in the East Bay. As the rancho prospered, the Peralta brothers built newer and bigger houses. The main hacienda contained two adobes, and some twenty guest houses, and became an established stop for travelers along what was during the Spanish era the only camino real on the eastern side of San Francisco Bay.</p><br>
<p>The hacienda became the social and commercial center of this vast rancho. Annual rodeos and cattle round-ups, horse racing, and games often took place here. The Peraltas eventually had over 8,000 head of cattle and 2,000 horses grazing on the rancho, and built a wharf on the bay near the hacienda headquarters in order to trade the rawhide and tallow produced by their cattle. The Peralta family built a total of 16 houses over a fifty-year period on Rancho San Antonio. There were eleven adobes, three frame houses, one brick house, and one built of "logs and dirt" (the very first structure built). Son Domingos home was located on Codornices Creek adjacent to the site of what is today St. Marys College High School. Son Vicentes home was located in what is today the heart of Oaklands Temescal district.</p><br>
<p>In 1842, Luís María Peralta decided to split the rancho among his sons. His five daughters received his cattle and his San Jose adobe (the Peralta Adobe) and land. He died in 1851, but not before telling his sons to steer clear of the California gold rush, stating, "The land is our gold." However, it would not be easy for the Peraltas to hold on to their property.</p><br>
<p>Although the United States government promised all rights of citizenship and property ownership to the Californios through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo signed at the end of the Mexican-American War in 1848, the 1851 USA Federal Land Act required the Californios to prove their land titles in court. The resulting litigation lasted years. In the interim, squatters continued to overrun Rancho San Antonio, stealing and killing cattle and even subdividing and selling land belonging to the Peraltas. Although the United States Supreme Court confirmed the Peralta title in 1856, the Peralta family had their own internal title dispute to resolve. The Peralta sisters apparently felt cheated out of the family land, and contested their brothers claim to the Rancho San Antonio land grant. The court case, known as the "Sisters Title case" was eventually resolved in the brothers favor by the California Supreme Court in 1859.</p><br>
<p>By 1860, the brothers land holdings had been substantially reduced, partly to pay for the previous decades litigation and to cover newly imposed property taxes. Among the lawyers representing them was Horace Carpentier who acquired large chunks of the Peralta lands as compensation for his services. After the 1868 Hayward earthquake destroyed many of the rancho&#39;s buildings, Antonio (the third son), built what is now known as the Peralta Hacienda, an Italianate Victorian two-story frame house in 1870, located in what is today the Fruitvale district of Oakland.</p><br>
<p>In 1872, the combined property of the sons of Luís María Peralta was assessed at approximately $200,000 (their fathers estate had been valued at $1,383,500 at the time of his death). By the time of Antonio Peraltas death in 1879, he only had 23 acre left of the original 16,067 acre his father gave him.</p><br>
<p>In the end, the 1870 house and the remnants of Antonio&#39;s share of the land grant were sold by his daughter Inez Galindo in 1897 to developer Henry Z. Jones who laid out streets and parcels and moved the 1870 house to its present location. That house and a brick house (the Peralta Home built by the eldest son Ignacio in 1860) are the only two remaining structures out of the entire complex. The 1870 House now sits in Peralta Hacienda Historical Park in Oakland and is open for tours.</p><br>
<h2>Historic designations</h2><br>
<p>Joaquin Miller House, National Register of Historic Places, NPS-66000204.</p><br>
<p>Rancho San Antonio, California Historical Landmark #246 (the commemorative plaque can be found in San Leandro).</p><br>
<p>Antonio Maria Peralta House, National Register of Historic Places 77000285</p><br>
<p>The Peralta Hacienda, California Historical Landmark #925</p><br>
<p>Camino of Rancho San Antonio, California Historical Landmark #299: The road ran from Mission San José to Fruitvale and later to San Pablo by way of Oakland and El Cerrito.</p><br>
<p>The First Unitarian Church of Oakland is located in western Downtown Oakland, California. It is a member of the Unitarian Universalist Association.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The building site was purchased in November 1888 from Jane K. Sather, a patron of the University of California. Construction began in 1890 and was completed in September 1891, although it began to be used for various activities while still unfinished.</p><br>
<p>The church building was designed in 1889 by Walter J. Mathews. This solid masonry Romanesque Revival style church departed radically from California&#39;s then predominant wood framed Carpenter Gothic style churches. It is noted for its famous stained glass windows produced by Goodhue of Boston, and for its arching redwood spans that were the widest at the time west of the Rocky Mountains.</p><br>
<p>The 1906 San Francisco earthquake damaged the building, but did not destroy it.</p><br>
<h3>Landmark</h3><br>
<p>The church is listed as California Historical Landmark #896, and is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NPS-77000284). The church remains a significant cultural and architectural landmark in Oakland.</p><br>
<p>Fort Ethan Allen was a United States Army installation in Vermont, named for American Revolutionary War figure Ethan Allen. Established as a cavalry post in 1894, today it is the center of a designated national historic district straddling the town line between Colchester and Essex. Locally, it is known simply as "The Fort", and now houses a variety of businesses, academic institutions, and residential areas.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The former grounds of Fort Ethan Allen stand on the north side of Vermont Route 15, roughly divided in half between southeastern Colchester and southwestern Essex. The grounds are organized around a large elliptical parade ground located just north of the main road, with circulation in the former base complex provided by series of concentric roadways joined by shorter segments radiating away from the parade ground. The grounds are more than 130 acre, and include a variety of former military buildings, in some places now including post-military construction. Fronting the parade ground along Dalton Drive are houses that originally served as officer housing, and the forts main administration building. Barracks, former cavalry stables, and other types of service buildings line the roads further out from the parade ground. A cluster of buildings at the far eastern end of the property includes one that has been converted into a museum recounting the forts history. Its original buildings were built in the then-popular Colonial Revival style, which was largely continued in later construction at the base.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Fort Ethan Allen was authorized by Congress in 1892, which had decided that some measure of permanent defense should be established in the vicinity of the US-Canada Border. It was built on former farmland donated to the federal government, and its buildings were constructed using locally sourced materials.</p><br>
<p>The fort was home to units of the 10th Cavalry Regiment in the early 1900s, 1st Squadron, 3rd Cavalry from 1919 to 1941, the 7th Field Artillery, less 2nd Battalion from 1922 to 1940, the 3rd Battalion, 13th Infantry from 1928 to 1931, the 2nd Battalion, 7th Field Artillery from 1933 to 1940, elements of 9th Quartermaster Regiment, and the 84th Quartermaster Battalion.</p><br>
<p>When the 10th Cavalry departed Vermont many of its members retired and remained in the area. As a result, many of their descendants still reside in Colchester, Winooski and Burlington.</p><br>
<p>The post was deactivated by the Army in 1944. Part of it was used to enlarge the campus of Saint Michael&#39;s College, parts of the post have been commercially developed, and part comprises Camp Johnson, the headquarters of the Vermont National Guard.</p><br>
<p>While there are some newer structures on the original post (notably college housing and Vermont PBS), the original buildings are put to good use. Various businesses occupy what used to be horse barns; barracks have been converted to apartments, and the "Officers Row" houses are condominiums. An abandoned theater and church are often used for firefighting practice. The former base hospital is a nursing home. Despite all the activity, it is a quiet neighborhood with many families.</p><br>
<p>Theban Tomb TT71 is located in the Theban Necropolis, on the west bank of the Nile, opposite to Luxor. It was the tomb chapel of Senenmut, who was the steward and architect of Hatshepsut.</p><br>
<p>The chapel is located in the necropolis area around Sheikh Abd el-Qurna. Previously (for about 100 years) the tomb was accessible and for most of this time the target of numerous investigations and intrusions, although early on already heavily destroyed. The tomb was visited already early. In the first half of the nineteenth century, John Gardner Wilkinson, Robert Hay and J. Wild copied scenes, although the decoration was already badly destroyed. Richard Lepsius (1842–45) took the false door to Berlin and copied some inscribed bricks. Only in 1906 Kurt Sethe copied all inscriptions. In 1930-31 Herbert Winlock cleared the whole tomb. Winlock found the fragments of a smashed sarcophagus.</p><br>
<p>Today the tomb chapel&#39;s decoration is almost totally gone. With its dimensions it is one of the biggest Theban chapels of the 18th Dynasty. The facade is about 30 meter wide. In the middle there is the entrance and on either side there are four niches with windows. The inner of the chapel has an (upside-down) T-shaped plan. The transverse hall is about 26 m long and supported by eight columns. At the back there are several small niches. In the hall appears the oldest depictions of Minoans in Egypt so far known. There are also remains of soldiers under a Hathor frieze and a biographical inscription. After the transverse hall follows a long passage with a niche at the end. Only few remains of the decoration survived, such as an offering list and a banquet scene, where Senenmut is once shown with his mother and once with his father. A special feature only known from this tomb are several rock cut stelae providing the name and titles of Senenmut.</p><br>
<p>Above the chapel, cut into the rocks, there is a block statue of Senenmut.</p><br>
<p>It has always been a matter of confusion that Senenmut had two tombs. However, in the 18th Dynasty several high officials had one decorated tomb chapel and a second tomb with an underground burial chamber often not even close to the chapel. In some cases it can be assumed that they even had an undecorated burial chamber in the Valley of the Kings, while a decorated chapel closer to the fertile land. The burial chamber of Senenmut was found at Deir el-Bahri TT353 and is sometimes called Senemuts secret tomb, as it has no chapel, which was in fact TT71. TT71 functioned most likely also as chapel for Senemuts parents, who were buried close by and are depicted in the chapel.</p><br>
<p>Branstree is a fell in the Far Eastern part of the English Lake District. It overlooks the valley of Mardale and Haweswater Reservoir.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>A circuit of high fells surrounds the head of Mardale, beginning at High Raise in the north and curving around over High Street and Harter Fell to Branstree and Selside Pike in the south. As the ridge is travelled in this direction, the countryside changes from crag and scree to more rounded fellsides clothed with grass. Branstree is the first fell moving east where grass prevails, and a Pennine character begins to take over from Lakeland. From many directions the fell appears as a smooth domed hill with a wide top.</p><br>
<p>Branstree has a connection southwestward to Harter Fell: the ridge crosses Gatescarth Pass (1,900 ft) which was the route of pedestrian traffic between Mardale and Longsleddale, its well-graded zig-zags still used by walkers today. The ancient trade between the two valleys ended when the level of Haweswater was raised in the 1940s, submerging the village of Mardale Green beneath the reservoir.</p><br>
<p>Eastward from Branstree is a wide swathe of rough moorland between the parallel valleys of Mardale and Swindale. This runs for about five miles before petering out at the valley of the River Lowther. Immediately east of Branstree is a second fell of similar height (2,207 ft) and character, which is unnamed on OS maps. At least one guidebook has suggested High Howes as a name, but Wainwright considered this to be a part of Branstree rather than a separate fell. Across Captain Whelter Bog to the north of the unnamed summit is Selside Pike, the final Wainwright in that direction.</p><br>
<p>South from Branstree a further ridge connects to Tarn Crag, passing between the head of Mosedale and the headwaters of Longsleddale. This depression at 1,650 ft is broad and boggy. Mosedale is the upper hanging valley of Swindale, running westwards from the apparent dalehead. Nestled against the lower slopes of Branstree near the head of Mosedale is Mosedale Cottage. This shepherd&#39;s bothy, two miles from the nearest road, is only inhabited occasionally. Its whitewashed walls provide an important navigational reference in deteriorating weather. Behind the cottage are the remains of a large quarry.</p><br>
<p>The eastern subsidiary summit of Howes is the subject of a chapter of Wainwright&#39;s book The Outlying Fells of Lakeland.</p><br>
<h2>Haweswater Aqueduct</h2><br>
<p>In the depression between Branstree and High Howes is a small tarn and the remains of a survey pillar. This unusual stone and concrete construction is cleft at the top to provide a sight line and was originally surrounded by a wooden frame, now decayed. This is one of four such pillars built during the construction of the Haweswater aqueduct. Below Branstree, Tarn Crag and Great Howe is the first section of the pipeline carrying water from the reservoir toward Manchester. The tunnel, some 1,300 ft below this point, required 250 tons of gelignite for blasting, and when constructed in the 1930s was the longest such pipeline in Britain. It emerges into Longsleddale below the southern end of Great Howe, where the spoil can still be seen.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit is broad and too flat to allow good all round views. These are further restricted by the higher fells to the west, but there is a fine prospect to the Pennines and Howgill Fells. Walls and fences follow the ridges from Gatesgarth, Tarn Crag and Selside Pike, meeting near the summit. A small cairn is situated a little to the north. A better view of Mardale, and certainly a better foreground, can be seen from Artlecrag Pike. This subsidiary top a little to the north has two fine columnar cairns built from the nearby outcrop of flaky rocks.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Ascents can be made from the three surrounding valleys. Gatescarth Pass provides access from the roadends of Mardale and Longsleddale. Alternative routes climb from the vicinity of Mosedale cottage and from the shore of Haweswater near the start of the Mardale Corpse Road.</p><br>
<p>Rodd Island is a 6,700 m&sup2; island on the Parramatta River in Sydney, Australia. It lies in the centre of Iron Cove, between the suburbs of Drummoyne, Russell Lea, Rodd Point, Haberfield and Leichhardt. It is located west of the Sydney Harbour upstream and the Harbour Bridge. Today the island is uninhabited, and forms part of the Sydney Harbour National Park. The island has had various other names over its history: Rabbit Island, Rhode Island, Snake Island and Jack Island.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island is named after Brent Clements Rodd, who had a long association with the island and the local area. He first attempted to buy the island from the government in 1842. The Rodd family, who lived on the western shore of Iron Cove in what is now the suburb of Rodd Point, used the island for recreation. Rodd tried again to purchase the island in 1859 and even put down a deposit of 17 pounds on it. However, the transaction was never completed and the island eventually became part of the first public recreation reserve in Sydney Harbour in 1879. Despite being a solicitor, Rodd managed neither to purchase the island, nor to have his deposit refunded.</p><br>
<p>Between 1888 and 1894, the island was used as a laboratory by scientists working for the Pasteur Institute, who were researching the use of the chicken cholera microbe to control Australia&#39;s rabbit population. Louis Pasteur sent his nephew, Doctor Adrien Loir to conduct the experimentation in Australia and facilities were constructed on the island. Pasteur was interested because he had been conducting similar research in France and Henry Parkes had offered a 25,000 pound reward to anyone who could solve the rabbit infestation problem. However, the research received an unfavourable report in 1889 and from June, 1890, the facilities were used to manufacture sheep and cattle vaccines for anthrax and pleuro-pneumonia.</p><br>
<p>The island was briefly home to Sarah Bernhardt&#39;s dogs. They were quarantined there during her 1891 world tour at the suggestion of Loir. Bernhardt was a frequent visitor to the island during her time in Sydney.</p><br>
<p>After 1894, the laboratories were demolished and the research station residence was converted into a dance hall, which still stands there, along with two summer houses and a gazebo constructed in the early 20th century. At this time, the island was managed by the Rodd Island Recreation Trust. Further changes were in the pipeline but never went ahead because of an outbreak of bubonic plague in Sydney in 1900. The Sydney Harbour Trust took over managing the island and they doubled its area by reclaiming land from the bay and constructing sea walls. Once the outbreak of the plague had finished, the island became a recreation area.</p><br>
<p>During the Second World War, from 1944, the island was used as a training base for the US Army. After the war, it reverted to its former use as a recreation area. The island became part of the Sydney Harbour National Park in February, 1982, and is now a popular picnic area and function centre. Loir&#39;s restored house was opened to the public in 1996.</p><br>
<p>Castle Crag is a hill in the North Western Fells of the English Lake District. It is the smallest hill included in Alfred Wainwright&#39;s influential Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells, the only Wainwright below 1,000 ft.</p><br>
<p>Wainwright accorded Castle Crag the status of a separate fell because it "is so magnificently independent, so ruggedly individual, so aggressively unashamed of its lack of inches, that less than justice would be done by relegating it to a paragraph in the High Spy chapter." Subsequent guidebooks have not always agreed: Castle Crag is one of only two Wainwrights not included in Bill Birkett&#39;s Complete Lakeland Fells.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The fell has an impressive appearance, a rugged height apparently blocking the valley of Borrowdale, which is squeezed between Castle Crag and Grange Fell, its neighbour on the other side. This narrow gorge known as the Jaws of Borrowdale, and is prominent in views from Keswick and Derwentwater.</p><br>
<p>High Spy, the parent fell, forms part of the north-south ridge between Borrowdale and the Newlands Valley. The rough spur of Low Scawdel (1,709 ft) runs out due east from the summit, breaking steeply over Goat Crag and then falling to Broadslack Gill. This small tributary of the River Derwent separates High Spy from Castle Crag.</p><br>
<p>The wooded height of Castle Crag rises between Broadslack Gill and the Derwent, the two streams meeting to the north beneath the outlying knoll of Low Hows. It has steep faces on all sides except the south, where a low ridge runs out and then swings west around the head of Broadslack Gill. A narrow col here provides the topographic link to High Spy.</p><br>
<h2>Geology, Quarrying and Millican Dalton</h2><br>
<p>The Derwentwater fault runs along the valley of Broadslack Gill, the higher ground to the north west being mainly composed of the Birker Fell Formation. These are plagioclase-phyric andesite lavas and subordinate sills. By contrast Castle Crag shows outcropping of the Eagle Crag Member, a mixture of siltstone, sandstone, conglomerate and tuff with frequent andesite sills.</p><br>
<p>The slopes of Castle Crag are extensively quarried with pits and levels on the northern and south eastern flanks. The summit has also been extensively worked. The High Hows Quarry later achieved fame as the home of Millican Dalton, the eccentric and self-styled "Professor of Adventure". The caves here formed his summer home from the 1920s until shortly before his death in 1947.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit area is believed to have been an ancient hill fort, although the western section has been sliced away by quarrying. It can only be gained by means of a sloping crack to the south. The very highest point is a rock outcrop about eight feet high and twelve feet across. Atop this is a well constructed circular cairn of slate. A memorial to Borrowdale men killed in World War I is affixed to the outcrop.</p><br>
<p>There is a fine view down the valley, Skiddaw seen to good effect across the lake. Southwards Great Gable and the Scafells ring the head of the Derwent catchment, while near at hand- enhanced by the steepness of the slope- is a view of the woods and crags of mid Borrowdale.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Castle Crag may be ascended easily from the villages of Grange in Borrowdale or Rosthwaite, and can be combined with the lovely riverside walk along the River Derwent. The Allerdale Ramble long distance walking route runs along the valley of Broadslack Gill, whilst the Cumbria Way crosses the eastern slopes of Castle Crag.</p><br>
<p>Thirucharanathumalai is a hillock located in Chitharal village 6 km from Marthandam, and 55 km from Kanyakumari. On the top of the hill under a path that seems naturally hanging there in a temple with mandapam, corridor and balipeetam with a madappalli . There are 3 sanctums housing Mahavira, Parswanatha and Padmavathi Devi. The idol of Bagavathi was installed instead of Padmavathi Devi by Sri Moolam Thirunal, king of Travancore in 1913. Above the hanging path, there is a dilapidated tower on a rock on the northern side. Bas-relief sculptures of all the 24 Tirthankaras are found. Some inscriptions belonging to the 9th century are also found here. It was a Jain training centre for both males and females in those days.</p><br>
<p></text></p><br>
<p></revision></p><br>
<p>Old State Library Building is a heritage-listed former library building at 159 William Street, Brisbane City, City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. It is also known as the former Queensland Museum. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992.</p><br>
<p>Originally constructed for the Queensland Museum opposite Queens Gardens, the building contained the State Library of Queensland from 1902 to 1988, when the State Library was relocated to the Queensland Cultural Centre at South Bank.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>This building was constructed in two stages. The three-storeyed William Street section was erected by the Queensland Colonial Government between 1876 and 1879, as the first purpose-built home for the Queensland Museum, which had been established in 1855. The four-storeyed extension was erected in 1958–59 as the Queensland Government&#39;s major centennial project.</p><br>
<p>In 1876 the design for the first section was completed under the supervision of Queensland Colonial Architect FDG Stanley, and a construction contract for £10,701 was let to W Macfarlane. The building was erected as stage one of a complex which was to incorporate two flanking wings housing the main staircases, and an arcade and colonnade fronting the river.</p><br>
<p>The choice of a classical style of architecture, modelled on 16th century Italian buildings and its central location close to the citys southern entrance, reflected the museums importance in the scientific and cultural life of Brisbane.</p><br>
<p>The building was completed and occupied early in 1879, but proved inadequate for museum purposes. In 1881 the area below was levelled and the basement was extended. By 1884 the government was setting aside funds for a new museum building, but economic depression necessitated the museum remaining in the cramped William Street premises until removed to the former Exhibition Building at Gregory Terrace in 1899.</p><br>
<p>A £1,900 contract was let in September 1900 for conversion of the former museum building into premises for the free Public Library of Queensland, established in 1896. The library opened in the refurbished building in April 1902. The name was changed to the State Library of Queensland in 1971.</p><br>
<p>The John Oxley Library, established in 1926 as the principal centre for research material on Queensland history, was housed in the State Library building from 1931.</p><br>
<p>As a major centennial project, the library building was extended in 1958–1959, at a cost of over £265,000. The additions, designed by government architects WG Thain, P Prystupa, U Stukoff, AJ Wheeler, D Davies and H de Jong, included an exhibition hall on the western side and reading rooms on the river elevation.</p><br>
<p>In 1958 national competitions were held for designs for a wall mural and sculpture to embellish the exterior of the new Centennial Hall. These were won by Victorian artist Lindsay Edward and Brisbane sculptor Leonard George Shillam. Shillam&#39;s aluminium sculpture was cast by the Non-Ferrous Foundry of Brisbane.</p><br>
<p>The extensions were opened officially in August 1959 by Princess Alexandra.</p><br>
<p>From 1964 to 1965 the original building underwent a major renovation, including the addition of a concrete frame structure, new floors, a mezzanine and air conditioning and the removal of the skylight, at a cost of over £227,000. The exterior brickwork may also have been rendered at this time. The William Street frontage remained largely intact, as one of the city&#39;s few surviving 1870s facades.</p><br>
<p>The State Library of Queensland (including the John Oxley Library) moved to new premises in the Queensland Cultural Centre in 1988, and the building has since been used as library storage.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Old State Library Building is situated between William Street and the Brisbane River, overlooking Queens Gardens. It was the first of a major series of government buildings: the Treasury Building, the Lands Administration Building, and the Family Services Building, which surround Queens Gardens. It is adjacent to the North Quay porphyry wall.</p><br>
<p>The Old State Library Building consists of two main parts; the original 1879 neoclassical structure and the 1959 modern extension.</p><br>
<p>The original building was a three storeyed masonry structure with a sandstone facade. The facade is designed using classical elements, with a rusticated base and double-height columns rising from the piano nobile to support an entablature. The centre of the facade is marked by an aedicular containing an arched doorway, at ground level (the original entrance, now blocked in) and a small pediment above in the entablature. The large unfluted columns with lotus leaf capitals form a colonnade in front of the second and third storeys. Corbels rise through the entablature above each column. The top pediment is marked by stretches of balustrade. All the windows in this front facade are arched.</p><br>
<p>The interior of the first section was substantially remodelled in 1964–1965, with the addition of a concrete frame structure, new floors, a mezzanine and air-conditioning.</p><br>
<p>The 1958–59 extension, to the west and south, is of four storeys, only one of which appears above William Street. The William Street frontage features a random pattered wall at the main entrance under a low-pitched copper-sheathed roof. The western wall is decorated with a large glass mosaic mural, 20.7 metres by 4.4 metres, the design suggesting primitive organic forms indicative of growth and development. On the river side is an aluminium sculpture approximately 6 metres high. Entitled "Enlightenment", it depicts three figures reaching towards the sun, symbolising the dissemination of enlightenment to mankind. To the south the extension was designed as a series of concrete fin walls providing views of the river, private work areas and shade from the sun.</p><br>
<h2>Heritage listing</h2><br>
<p>The Old State Library Building was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992 having satisfied the following criteria.</p><br>
<p>The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland&apos;s history.</p><br>
<p>The former State Library provides evidence of the importance of the Queensland Museum as an institution in late nineteenth century Brisbane scientific and cultural life.</p><br>
<p>The former State Library is significant for its historical association with the 1958–59 extension, the major centennial project by the Queensland Government and for its association with the State Library of Queensland since 1902.</p><br>
<p>The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland&apos;s cultural heritage.</p><br>
<p>The building is significant as an example of an 1870s public building in central Brisbane.</p><br>
<p>The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.</p><br>
<p>The building is an integral member of the most prominent, important and cohesive group of government buildings in Queensland. As a fine classical facade by FDG Stanley, the building is significant for its architectural quality.</p><br>
<p>Ħaġar Qim  is a megalithic temple complex found on the Mediterranean island of Malta, dating from the Ġgantija phase . The Megalithic Temples of Malta are among the most ancient religious sites on Earth, described by the World Heritage Sites committee as "unique architectural masterpieces." In 1992 UNESCO recognized Ħaġar Qim and four other Maltese megalithic structures as World Heritage Sites. V. Gordon Childe, Professor of Prehistoric European Archeology and director of the Institute of Archaeology in the University of London from 1946-1957 visited Ħaġar Qim. He wrote, "I have been visiting the prehistoric ruins all round the Mediterranean, from Mesopotamia to Egypt, Greece and Switzerland, but I have nowhere seen a place as old as this one."</p><br>
<p>Ħaġar Qims builders used globigerina limestone in the temples construction. In 2009 work was completed on a protective tent.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>The megalithic complex of Ħaġar Qim is located on the southern edge of the island of Malta, on a ridge capped in soft globigerina limestone. All exposed rock on the island was deposited during the Oligocene and Miocene periods of geological time. Globigerina limestone is the second oldest rock on Malta, outcropping over approximately 70% of the area of the islands. The builders used this stone throughout the temple architecture.</p><br>
<p>The temple’s façade is characterized by a trilithon entrance, outer bench and orthostats. It has a wide forecourt with a retaining wall and a passage runs through the middle of the building, following a modified Maltese megalithic design. A separate entrance gives access to four independent enclosures which replace the north-westerly apse.</p><br>
<p>Features of temple architecture reveal a preoccupation with providing accommodation for animal sacrifices, burnt offerings and ritual oracles. Recesses were used as depositories for sacrificial remains. Excavation has uncovered numerous statuettes of deities and highly decorated pottery.</p><br>
<p>No burials exist in the temple or the area surrounding Ħaġar Qim, nor have any human bones been discovered in Maltese temples. Bones of numerous sacrificial animals have been found. It is theorized that the Ħaġar Qim complex was built in three stages, beginning with the Old Temple northern apses, followed by the New Temple, and finally the completion of the entire structure.</p><br>
<p>A few hundred metres from the temple is one of the thirteen watchtowers built by Grand Master Martin de Redin, called Ħamrija Tower. A memorial to General Sir Walter Norris Congreve, Governor of Malta from 1924–1927, is located nearby. The village of Qrendi is a further two kilometres (2 km) southwest of the temple complex.</p><br>
<h2>The Temple Complex</h2><br>
<p>The Ħaġar Qim complex consists of a main temple and three additional megalithic structures beside it. The main temple was built between 3600 and 3200 BC; however, the northern ruins are considerably older. The outside entrance serves as an interior passage and connects six large chambers. The right apse is constructed as an arch to prevent the upright slabs falling inward. The outside wall, built of huge upright blocks, projects inwards, thus creating an extremely solid building. This entrance passage and first court follow the Maltese megalithic pattern but as building progressed, this design was considerably modified. The northwesterly apse was replaced by four independent enclosures.</p><br>
<p>Ħaġar Qim shares its basic architectural design with the Mnajdra, Tarxien and Ġgantija temple complexes. The basic shape includes forecourt and façade, elongated oval chambers, semi-circular recesses and a central passage connecting the chambers. This configuration is commonly termed "trefoil". It is also suggested that the shape of the temple in some way mimics the sacred sculptures found within them.</p><br>
<h3>Temple Forecourt</h3><br>
<p>An extensive forecourt paved with large, irregular slabs occupies the area before the outer wall. It is a solid floor, encumbered with large blocks that once formed part of the walls or a series of chambers. One of the paving stones is pierced through and is theorized to have once served the purpose of a fireplace. The Ħaġar Qim forecourt shares many characteristics with Mnajdra&#39;s southern temple forecourt.</p><br>
<h3>Dwelling-Houses and Bastion</h3><br>
<p>A group of middle-sized stones form small, semi-circular areas commonly referred to as "dwelling-houses". Alongside these, four rectangular monoliths approximately two-feet thick enclose a rectangular area, leaving an entrance in one corner.</p><br>
<p>The bastion flanks the temple and is built from large stone blocks. Its western wall is about 20 metres long, curving in on itself towards the main temple and an outdoor shrine. It has been theorized that this was done to protect the complex from wild animals, which are known to have been plentiful at that time on the islands. It also distinguished the temples as sacred spaces.</p><br>
<p>The Ħaġar Qim façade contains the largest stone used in Maltese megalithic architecture, weighing 57 tons. Erosion has affected the outer southern wall where the orthostats are exposed to sea-winds. Over the millennia, the temple has suffered severe weathering and surface flaking.</p><br>
<h3>Northern Temple</h3><br>
<p>The northern temple is the oldest part of Ħaġar Qim, containing an oval chamber with a semi-circular apse on each side. Following the second doorway is another chamber with similar apses.</p><br>
<p>The northern temple uniquely has three insulated layers of flooring. The pavement on the topmost level is not marked by sacrificial fires, unlike the lower floors. Due to the different methods used in polishing the stone, scholars have theorized that the three layers of pavement illustrate three major shifts in construction at Ħaġar Qim.</p><br>
<p>Stone balls of different sizes are located alongside the walls of the northern temple and other parts of the structure. These are theorized to have been the rollers used to transport the megaliths. Excavations have revealed such rollers buried beneath the megaliths, thus contributing to a solid foundation.</p><br>
<h3>Women's Chamber</h3><br>
<p>The Northern Temple&#39;s first recess contains a round stone pillar and a rectangular slab held vertically ahead of the pillar. Resting on the slab are spherical hollows which may have served as holders in which to stand small libation jars. Jars excavated from the site are characterized by a specifically oval base, designed to stand upright when placed in the slab.</p><br>
<p>Remnants of the vertical blocks which once flanked the recess are still observable today. To the right of this chamber is another recess, containing an acoustic opening called the "oracle hole". Sound passed from the main chamber into the recess, and vice versa. The hole has also been linked to alignments of the Summer solstice. On the right side of the chamber is a horizontal block that may have served as seating.</p><br>
<h3>Main Temple</h3><br>
<p>Beyond the temple entrance is an oval area 14.3 m long and 5.5 m wide with large slab walls, originally topped by courses of masonry. The two apsidal ends are separated from the central court by two vertical slabs pierced by rectangular openings. These openings are thought to have been adorned with curtains to limit access to the side apses.</p><br>
<p>The central area is paved with well-set smooth blocks, and along the walls are low stone altars, originally decorated with pit-marks. Some of these blocks are discolored by fire. In 1839, archaeologists discovered important objects in this court, now shown in the Valletta Museum. These include stone statuettes, a detailed altar-stone with deep carvings representing vegetation, a stone slab with spirals in relief and a displaced sill-stone.</p><br>
<p>The right-hand apse once held a pen, theoretically intended for the corralling of animals. The left-hand apse has a high trilithon altar on its left, two others on right with one in a smaller chamber. An additional chamber beyond it combines a central court, niche and right apse.</p><br>
<h3>The Niche</h3><br>
<p>A doorway into the small enclosure follows an elaborately pit-marked annex, flanked by distinctively shaped stone altars with rounded and raised edges. The foot of one altar is pierced by two elliptical holes, one above the other.</p><br>
<p>The entrance to the enclosure is well-paved and neatly flanked by slabs on end. A threshold is provided by a couple of conical pits connected at the apex, demonstrating the "rope holes" seen in many other Maltese temples. Heavy slabs form a Niche to the left of the entrance, to the right a cell contains an altar constructed out of a single block of stone and deeply discolored by action of fire. This space is theorized to have been the most sacred in the temple.</p><br>
<p>At the front of the enclosure, the passage widens into a quadrangular area with an elaborate cell at the end. A slab, 0.9 meters high, blocks the entrance to this cell at floor level, and another slab rests on two pillars. This layout reduces the whole section to a rectangular window-like opening. Beyond this opening there is a small room. The first excavators failed to conclusively report what was found in this recess. In comparison with the Tarxien Temples, it is presumed to have contained the bones of sacrificed animals and ritually broken pottery.</p><br>
<h3>The Watering Place</h3><br>
<p>Il-Misqa (the Watering Place), is a flat area of bare rock atop a hill nearby the temple complex. It contains seven bell-shaped reservoirs that still retain rain-water during any winter with an average rainfall. Of the seven, five wells hold water; the three wells which no longer hold water are the deepest and are joined as a single tank through subterranean channels. A monolith surmounts one of the dry holes and is theorized to have been used in drawing water from the well. An eighth well exists but is blocked up by a mature fig tree.</p><br>
<p>The water-channels cut in the surface of the rock distribute rain-water into the wells individually and the level of water in any well is kept relative to that of the immediately adjoining well.</p><br>
<h2>Excavation and restoration</h2><br>
<p>Ħaġar Qim was first explored in 1839 at public expense during the Governorship of Sir Henry Bouverie, by J. G. Vance of the Royal Engineers. Within two short months, that officer had made a plan of the buildings and sent to Valletta a stone altar, a decorated slab and seven stone statuettes which are now exhibited in the Valletta Museum. The account of his excavations was published in 1842.</p><br>
<p>In 1885, Dr. A. A. Caruana made further excavations and published a lengthy report with elaborate plans, sections and views, drawn by Dr. Philip Vassallo of the Public Works Department.</p><br>
<p>Further excavations were carried out in 1909 by Sir Themistocles Zammit and Thomas Eric Peet.</p><br>
<p>Sir Themistocles was part of the Research Council selected by the First International Congress of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Science.</p><br>
<p>In 1910, the surrounding fields were carefully searched and the ruins themselves accurately surveyed by members of the British School at Rome who repaired some of the damaged structures and made a rich collection of potsherds, flint implements, stone and clay objects, now deposited in the Valletta Museum.</p><br>
<p>The temple was included on the Antiquities List of 1925.</p><br>
<p>On 17 September 1949, three statuettes and several pieces of a much larger stone statue were discovered buried beneath a rectangular stone. The "Venus of Malta", which shares similar characteristics with the Ħaġar Qim statuettes, was discovered on 31 March 1950. It is important to note that the absence of sexual characteristics on the more developed types of Maltese cult-statuettes may imply that the being represented is in fact asexual.</p><br>
<p>Little has been done to restore the temple with the exception of reinforcing or replacing several stones, including the lintel, in the 1950s. Shelters have been constructed by Ħeritage Malta in an attempt to shield the temples from further erosion. A visitors&#39; centre has been built near the temple, over what was originally a small restaurant. The visitors’ centre includes an auditorium for an audio-visual introduction and an exhibition space, displaying related artifacts and reproductions from the Museum of Archaeology as well as interactive exhibits.</p><br>
<p>The new structures have been the focus of some controversy, after MEPA&#39;s reports that construction be limited to the Magħlaq quarry (in the vicinity of Mnajdra) and not beside the Ħaġar Qim temples, were found to be misleading.</p><br>
<p>Monterey State Historic Park is a historic state park in Monterey, California. It includes part or all of the Monterey Old Town Historic District, a historic district that includes 17 contributing buildings and was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1970. The grounds include California&#39;s first theatre, and the Monterey Customs House, where the American flag was first raised over California.</p><br>
<p>The park is a group of restored historic buildings: the Custom House, the Cooper-Molera Adobe Complex, the Larkin House, Californias First Brick House, Colton Hall (City Hall of Monterey), Old Whaling Company, the Stevenson House, the First Theater, the Pacific House Museum, the Interpretive House, Casa del Oro, and Casa Soberanes. These houses display the cultural diversity that guided Californias transition from a remote Spanish outpost in Las Californias province, to an agricultural Mexican Alta California territory, to USA statehood. These influential adobe houses made up Californias earliest capital and were the site of the states first constitutional convention.</p><br>
<p>Today the historic buildings retain their rich heritage, preserving an important part of Californian as well as Spanish, Mexican, and American history. Added to the adobe houses is the parks Interpretive Center and the Pacific House Museum. The park provides tours of the historic houses and museums for the general public. The &#39; are part of the open-air museum for visitors.</p><br>
<h2>The park</h2><br>
<h3>Custom House</h3><br>
<p>The Custom House, built around 1821 by the Mexican government, is California&#39;s first historic landmark and its oldest public building. It is where the first American Flag was raised on July 7, 1846, declaring California part of the United States. It is a National Historic Landmark (#66000217). It is also a California Historical Landmark (#1).</p><br>
<h3>Cooper-Molera Adobe</h3><br>
<p>The Cooper-Molera Adobe was built by John Bautista Rogers Cooper, a sailor, in 1823. He became a merchant and a prominent landowner in Monterey. Cooper&#39;s daughter Amelia married Eusebio Joseph Molera in 1875. The adobe house is a leading example of Spanish building style combined with New England architecture.</p><br>
<p>The Cooper-Molera Adobe was featured in Bob Vilas A&E Network production Guide to Historic Homes of America. In 2015, the exhibits and collections were reassessed in order to better illuminate the lives of the family who lived there. Through the historical collections inventory, the Cooper-Molera Adobes holdings were identified and grouped in various categories. This process illuminated 2 activities that were of particular interest to the family: animal husbandry and farming (specifically artichoke growing).</p><br>
<h3>Larkin House</h3><br>
<p>The Larkin House, itself designated a National Historic Landmark, combined Spanish building methods with New England architectural features. This created a pattern for the popular "Monterey Colonial" style of architecture. This building is a California Historical Landmark (#106).</p><br>
<h3>First Brick House</h3><br>
<p>Californias first brick house was built in 1847 by Gallant Dickenson. He was the first person to introduce American building techniques to Montereys architectural mix. Previously, Spanish and Mexican construction relied on unfired adobe blocks, which required extremely thick walls to support upper stories and plaster coatings to repel water. In contrast brick could make walls that were much thinner yet far more durable. Dickinson planned to make the house bigger, but left for the California gold fields with only the extant structure completed. It later housed a restaurant.</p><br>
<h3>Colton Hall</h3><br>
<p>In 1849, the California constitution was drafted in both English and Spanish in this building. In 1850 California became the thirty first state of America. San Jose was then elected as the seat of California state government, ending Montereys years as Californias capital. (The state&#39;s capital changed several times, and became Sacramento in 1854.) Reenactments of the state constitutional convention are held every year in Colton Hall during History Week. This building is a California Historical Landmark (#126).</p><br>
<h3>Old Whaling Station</h3><br>
<p>The Old Whaling Station was built as a private home in 1847, but in 1855 became the headquarters and employee housing for the Old Monterey Whaling Company. This building was used to support the shore whaling operations. The unique feature of this establishment is the front walkway, which is made up of whale vertebrae, one of several buildings in the area that prominently feature whalebone. The Old Whaling Station is a reminder of the economic activity in California&#39;s history.</p><br>
<h3>First Theater</h3><br>
<p>This adobe, was built by English seaman Jack Swan in 1846-47 as a lodging house and tavern for sailors. He built the wood portion of the building in about 1845. He added the adobe portion in 1847, as the actual theater.</p><br>
<p>It was used as a theatre in 1850 when USA Army officers stationed in Monterey, i.e., Lt. Alfred Sully, and others, produced plays under the direction of Actor/Manager Charles Bingham, and named it "The Union Theatre for the production of Melodramas". Swan built a small stage and provided benches, whale-oil lamps, candles for footlights and blankets as curtains. In later years, the First Theatre was used as a lodging house for whalers, but fell into disrepair after Swan&#39;s death in 1896.</p><br>
<p>It was purchased in 1906 by California Historic Landmarks League and donated to the State of California. In 1937 and until recently, the Troupers of the Gold Coast staged the first melodramas since the 1850s. Because of structural issues, the building is closed to the public except for the Christmas in the Adobes event in December. This building is a California Historical Landmark (#136).</p><br>
<h3>Stevenson House</h3><br>
<p>In 1879, Scottish novelist Robert Louis Stevenson stayed at the French Hotel at 530 Houston Street, now called the Stevenson House after him and dedicated to his memory. Stevenson lived there while recovering his health as he was crossing the United States to court his future wife Fanny Osbourne. While there, he often dined "on the cuff," as he said, at a nearby restaurant run by Frenchman Jules Simoneau which stood at what is now Simoneau Plaza. Several years later, Stevenson sent Simoneau an inscribed copy of his novel Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886), writing that it would be a stranger case still if Robert Louis Stevenson ever forgot Jules Simoneau. Stevenson wrote some articles for the local Monterey newspaper, including one that beautifully evoked "the Old Pacific Capital."</p><br>
<p>The Stevenson House features a bas relief depicting the sickly author writing in bed, and is California Historical Landmark #352.</p><br>
<h3>Pacific House Museum</h3><br>
<p>The Pacific House was constructed in 1847 during the USA occupation of California. This adobe was used by the USA Army as storage, a hotel, a court house, a tavern, and in later years as offices. The gardens outside were used for bullfights and bear fights. The Pacific House Museum tells the story of Monterey when it was the capital of Spanish and Mexican California, and also contains the Monterey Museum of the American Indian. This building is a California Historical Landmark (#354).</p><br>
<h3>Casa Soberanes</h3><br>
<p>Rafael Estrada constructed the Casa Soberanes, an adobe brick home on a hillside overlooking the bay, during the 1840s. His family lived there until it was sold to the Soberanes family in 1860, who lived there until 1922. The Serranos later purchased and restored the house in the 1920s and 1930s. The house contains furnishings that are a blend of early New England and China trade pieces mixed in with modern Mexican folk art. Casa Soberanes received its nickname—The House of the Blue Gate—from the blue gate at its garden entrance on Pacific Street. Wine bottles, whale bones, and abalone shells border paths meandering through the sheltered garden. This building is a California Historical Landmark (#712).</p><br>
<h3>Casa del Oro</h3><br>
<p>The Casa del Oro—or "House of Gold" in Spanish—is in the Custom House Plaza. Built in 1849 as an army barracks, then as a hospital for sailors run by Thomas Larkin. Later the building was used as general store run by Joseph Boston in the 1850s. The origin of the name could be attributed to a period of time when the building was used as saloon and later as a gold dust exchange for miners. This building is a California Historical Landmark (#532).</p><br>
<h3>Sherman Quarters</h3><br>
<p>The Sherman Quarters were built in 1834 by Thomas Larkin. This small stone building was the quarters for Lieutenant William Tecumseh Sherman in 1847. Sherman later became famous as a Union general during the American Civil War. Later the artist Percy Gray, a California Impressionist, lived there with his new wife from 1923 to 1939.</p><br>
<p>Mullum Mullum Creek is a creek in the outer eastern suburbs of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It is the main watercourse of the Mullum Mullum Valley, a tributary of the Yarra River and Yarra Valley. For tens of thousands of years it was used as a food and tool source sustainably by the Wurundjeri people, Indigenous Australians of the Kulin nation, who spoke variations of the Woiwurrung language group.</p><br>
<p>It is one of the only watercourses lying within urban metropolitan Melbourne that is surrounded by native and regenerated bushland for almost its entire length, and is a significant remnant ecosystem in Melbourne. Around 80,000 people live in the creek&#39;s catchment area. The remnant bushland across its length provides habitat for significant species such as platypus, rakali, koalas, powerful owl, nankeen night heron, white-winged chough and yellow-tailed black cockatoo.</p><br>
<p>In recent decades the creek and valley has been central in many of issues in Melbourne&#39;s eastern suburbs, such as; residential housing estates, regeneration of native vegetation and most recently, Tollway construction. The Eastlink Tollway passes underneath the valley through 1.5-km of tunnels to avoid disturbing the remnant ecosystem through the Mullum Mullum Gorge, however through Ringwood, it crosses the creek above ground, resulting in the relocation of the creek through this area.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Mullum Mullum is adapted from Woiwurrung language and is thought to mean "place of many big birds" and led many historians to conclude that it meant "Place of Eagles". Many other interpretations have been suggested including; "place of many big swifts" or "place of many big owls" perhaps in reference to the powerful owls of the valley. Some historians suspect Mullum Mullum to be a mistranslation of another Wurundjeri expression Ballum Ballum meaning "place of many butterflies". Around the higher grassy woodlands there are large numbers of butterfly and moth species breeding in the grasslands, many of which have not yet been documented.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and ecology</h2><br>
<p>The creek flows for 22 km through the Mullum Mullum Valley travelling west and then north where it flows into the Yarra River. It passes through many of Melbourne&#39;s eastern suburbs including; Croydon, Ringwood, Mitcham, Donvale, East Doncaster, western Warrandyte and Templestowe. It is most often a slight green/brown colour due to the riverbed silt, during heavy rainfall it appears light brown. Its geography is generally divided up into 4 sections; The High Plateau Tract, The Mullum Mullum Gorge, The Valley Tract and The Plains Tract.</p><br>
<h3>High Plateau Tract</h3><br>
<p>Through: Croydon, Ringwood</p><br>
<p>A ring of high forested hills that separates the Dandenong Valley from the Yarra Valley is the source of the Mullum Mullum Creek. The high plateau is formed by the Wicklow Ridge to Reaghs Hill in the east, Bedford Road and Maroondah Highway in the south, and the Loughnans Hill, Wonga Road ridge to the west. Commencing in Croydon south of Birt&#39;s Hill behind the Yarra Valley School, the Mullum Mullum Creek flows south downstream passing remnant orchards, bushland and parks through Ringwood and past Eastland Shopping Centre. Native hyacinth orchids and small grass trees are present in these remnant forests.</p><br>
<p>The otter-like rakali feeds in the stream here. Grassy, sedgy woodlands here are home to many undocumented species of butterflies as well as birds and possums. Drier mixed species forests gradually give way to swamp gums and manna gums as the creek heads south. Near New Street, the creek once turned and flowed south of Maroondah Highway down the now dry bed of the upper Heatherdale Creek and into the Dandenong Creek and Port Philip Bay, but a natural river capture has now taken the waters of the creek and diverted them through a narrow gap in the hills to the north and the Yarra River.</p><br>
<h3>Mullum Mullum Gorge</h3><br>
<p>Through: Ringwood, Mitcham, Park Orchards, Donvale</p><br>
<p>With the extra captured water, the Mullum Mullum Creek has carved a steep "V" shaped gorge with rocky cascades. Here in the damp shadows, tall old growth riparian forests provide habitat for koalas and native birds species. Maidenhair ferns and tree ferns thrive. The drier hillsides are home to native orchids and echidnas. Passing under the steep bushland escarpment below Poynton Avenue in Ringwood, the rocky cascades and fern covered banks of the Mullum Mullum gorge become apparent. Tall manna gum woodlands, some with treefern understorey, are home to tawny frogmouths and sugar gliders. Near Schwerkolt Cottage, the rocky cascades are bordered by drier open grassy woodlands, rare Valley Heathy Forest rich with native orchids, particularly near Antonio Park, Yarran Dheran, the Hillcrest area at Mitcham, and the Chaim Court bushland and pipe-track at Donvale.</p><br>
<p>The tall ancient manna gum forests near Whitefriars College are home to ducks (who nest on the tops of old stags) crimson rosellas, galahs and other parrots (who nest in old hollows), rare large powerful owls and rainbow lorikeets. Pied cormorants and night herons cruise the creek pools. Rakali and the occasional platypus, fish for galaxias, gudgeon and yabbies. There are signs of wombat diggings on the hill face but they are rarely seen. The occasional swamp wallaby and eastern grey kangaroo visit the gorge. In warm weather skinks, blue tongue lizards and copperhead snakes can be seen. Other rarely seen species include marbled geckos and white-lipped snakes.</p><br>
<h3>Valley Tract</h3><br>
<p>Through: Donvale, Doncaster East, Warrandyte</p><br>
<p>At Park Road in Park Orchards the valley begins to open up. Here many small tributaries join the Mullum Mullum Creek. Loughnans Creek connects to Loughies Bushland and B.J. Hubbard Bushland Reserves in Ringwood North, and many green corridors and urban pathways link to the Mullum Mullum Creek bushland parks on the west. Pockets of good bushland such as the girl guides camp in McGowans Road provide refuge to koalas and tawny frogmouths. Rare yellow box open woodlands with kangaroo grass understorey to the east help protect the resident kangaroos and the breeding white-winged choughs. The higher ground in Park Orchards provides views to the dividing ranges and Mount Macedon and glimpses of the Yarra Valley to the north. Old gold mines in this area are home to bat colonies.</p><br>
<p>The rural areas of Park Orchards, the bushland from Tindalls Road to Reynolds Road, the Currawong Bush Park, the regenerated bushland near Larnoo Drive at Donvale all provide wonderful bushland habitat and a very significant linear open space. Small tributaries with wetlands, ferns and growling grass frogs link to the Mullum at Currawong Bush Park. Kangaroos, koalas and echidnas are permanent residents in the area, and platypus live in the Creek. The last major tributary, that forms the valley of the Green Gully Linear Park, joins the Mullum Mullum Creek, near Tikalara Park, just opposite the new parklands within the subdivision as the end of Blackburn Road.</p><br>
<h3>Plains Tract</h3><br>
<p>Through: Doncaster East, Templestowe</p><br>
<p>North of the Heidelberg-Warrandyte Road the creek slowly winds its way towards the Yarra River in Templestowe. Where the Mullum Mullum meets the Yarra, is also where Wurundjeri and European Cultures meet. Tikalara Park, the next stage of the Yarra Valley Metropolitan Park upstream from Petty&#39;s Orchard, is particularly a place of significance for the Wurundjeri. Here ancient scar trees and scatter sites provide physical evidence to support the documented evidence that this area was a clan meeting place of the Wurundjeri.</p><br>
<p>Pontville homestead on the Mullum Mullum Creek near the Yarra River is a site of state historic significance for its associations with early European settlement, and it is a known site of conflict between European and Wurundjeri cultures. The plains where the Mullum Mullum flows into the Yarra are home to kangaroos, wallabies, wombats and is a known platypus breeding ground. The Australian Platypus Conservancy has been studying the significant population of platypus in this area, and their research has confirmed that the Mullum Mullum Creek provides habitat for the highest density of platypus in the whole of the Yarra River catchment.</p><br>
<h3>Settlements</h3><br>
<p>Approximately 70-80,000 people live in the creek&#39;s catchment area. The settlements located along its course are listed below, from downstream to upstream</p><br>
<p>Eastern Templestowe - 4,000</p><br>
<p>Western Warrandyte - 6,800</p><br>
<p>Doncaster East - 26,700</p><br>
<p>Park Orchards - 3,500</p><br>
<p>Donvale - 11,600</p><br>
<p>Eastern Mitcham - 8,000</p><br>
<p>Ringwood - 15,200</p><br>
<p>Croydon - 22,000</p><br>
<p>Croydon Hills - 5,400</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The creek and valley is hypothesised to have been used by Indigenous Australians as a route from modern day Melbourne to Warrandyte. Early European settlement occupied well watered open grassy woodlands on either side of the ridge lines, along the main roads and railway lines, and the more open valleys. Orchards were established on the higher plateaus of Ringwood, Croydon, Park Orchards, and Templestowe.</p><br>
<p>The natural significance of the valley was recognised early by Naturalists who made excursions to Mitcham to see the remarkable bushlands and rich wildflower displays. In the 1920s and the 1930s it was proposed that the Mullum Mullum Valley should become protected bush parkland, but the remnant bushlands were not threatened by development, the scenery was not spectacular and society at the time had other priorities. After World War II, more people made excursions and day trips to Mitcham, and to Loughnans Hill and Louhnans Lake in Ringwood North to enjoy the views and the wonderful bushlands.</p><br>
<p>By 1946, local town planning schemes again proposed protection of this bushland as parkland, but local planning schemes were being brought together under the MMBW Metropolitan Planning Scheme.</p><br>
<p>In 1954, this scheme first proposed a series of "parkway" roads along our creek valleys, which were made obsolete in the 1969 Melbourne transport plan. Many local residents who chose, in the 1930s and 1940s, to establish their residences next to these bushland, have been fighting for more than 50 years to protect these bushlands from development.</p><br>
<h2>Parklands and recreation</h2><br>
<p>Parks Victoria operate several areas of designated parkland adjoining the Mullum Mullum Creek. Much of this parkland, particularly in the Open Valley Tract was replanted and regenerated, whilst other areas are remnant native bushland. The Mullum Mullum Creek Trail runs through much of this parkland giving cyclists through access to the entire valley. Below is a list of parks adjoining the creek in order from its origin to where it flows into the Yarra River. Adjoining geographic features are shown in bold.</p><br>
<p>Douglas Maggs Reserve (playground)</p><br>
<p>Peter Vergers Reserve (tennis)</p><br>
<p>Mullum Mullum Reserve Ringwood (football, cricket, playground)</p><br>
<p>Ringwood Lake</p><br>
<p>Schwerkolt Cottage (local museum & gardens)</p><br>
<p>Yarran Dheran</p><br>
<p>Hillcrest Reserve</p><br>
<p>Walert Creek</p><br>
<p>Buck Reserve (pony club & horse trails)</p><br>
<p>Mullum Mullum Creek Linear Park - upper section</p><br>
<p>Mullum Mullum Reserve Donvale (hockey, bowls, tennis)</p><br>
<p>Currawong Bush Park (wildlife enclosure, education centre)</p><br>
<p>Mullum Mullum Creek Linear Park - lower section</p><br>
<p>Mullum Mullum Wetlands</p><br>
<p>Deep Creek Reserve (baseball)</p><br>
<p>Domain Wetlands</p><br>
<p>Tikalara Park</p><br>
<p>Yarra River</p><br>
<p>Most of these parklands contain paths or trails, many of which are shared use (pedestrian/cycling). The Mullum Mullum Creek Linear Park follows the course of the creek in the Open Valley Tract between Doncaster East and Donvale, this is where the Mullum Mullum Creek Trail runs beside the creek. Bicycle trails upstream include the Mullum Mullum Valley Path through the gorge and a trail through Ringwood into Croydon beside the creek.</p><br>
<h2>Crossings</h2><br>
<p>There are many crossings of the Mullum Mullum Creek including around 15 footbridges, many of which are not included in this list as they are only small local pedestrian bridges:</p><br>
<p>The Parkway - local single lane bridge</p><br>
<p>Manna Gum Bridge - main road & footbridge</p><br>
<p>Reynolds Road - main road</p><br>
<p>Donvale Pony Club Footbridge</p><br>
<p>Tindals Road - secondary road</p><br>
<p>Park Road - secondary road & footbridge</p><br>
<p>Heads Road - local street (single lane)</p><br>
<p>EastLink - tollway tunnel</p><br>
<p>Quarry Road - local street (single lane)</p><br>
<p>Yarran Dheran footbridges</p><br>
<p>Deep Creek Road - secondary road</p><br>
<p>EastLink - tollway bridges (Ringwood Interchange)</p><br>
<p>Ringwood Bypass - main road</p><br>
<p>Oliver Street - local street</p><br>
<p>Oban Road - secondary road</p><br>
<p>Kalinda Road - local street</p><br>
<h3>Tollway tunnels</h3><br>
<p>From 2006–2008 Eastlink was built, a major tollway servicing Melbourne&#39;s eastern and south-eastern suburbs. Eastlink crosses the Mullum Mullum Creek and Valley in Ringwood and Donvale. During the planning stages several proposals were considered for how this crossing would be made, some of which included a 3 km tunnel to go under the entire valley and a surface freeway requiring the destruction of the natural environment. The state government decided on a compromise and two 1.5-km tunnels were subsequently built under the creek and valley. The eastbound tunnel was named after the creek, the other being named after Dame Nellie Melba.</p><br>
<p>The irony of the situation was that the primary reason this section of the creek was in so natural a state was that it had been protected from other development through the land having been reserved for the section of the proposed F35 Scoresby Freeway (Renamed Eastlink) to join the end of the Eastern Freeway under the 1969 Melbourne Transportation Plan.</p><br>
<h2>Pollution</h2><br>
<p>The Mullum Mullum Creek suffers from many of the problems inherent in the development of urban environments and pollution in and around the creek is unfortunately quite prominent. Two of the most significant problems affecting the creek is sewage spills after heavy rain and leakage of septic tank effluent from residential properties into watercourses and subsequently, the creek itself. This is a problem that extends to the Yarra River and has become a major issue affecting the ecology of central Victoria and state politics.</p><br>
<p>In 2005, three kayakers contracted leptospirosis and suffered bouts of delusion and lung hemorrhaging after swallowing Yarra river water. Tests were conducted in the Yarra River and the Mullum Mullum Creek and the levels of many pathogens were found to have breached local and international standards for recreational water. This is documented in a 2007 report by EPA Victoria in which levels of Human faecal matter and E. coli were recorded and documented. Other major pollutants entering the creek via stormwater drains and surface runoff include dog feces, cigarette butts, packaging and other post-consumer waste.</p><br>
<h3>Solid pollution</h3><br>
<p>In terms of hard pollution, plastics like bags and packaging are most common, they catch in the trees at the high-water mark on the creek banks, tires are also particularly common as well as other car parts such as batteries and pieces of metal. Large pieces of concrete somehow find their way into the creek at various locations and sit amongst the rocks almost blending in if it weren&#39;t for the exposed aggregate. Clothing is also common, particularly synthetic items such as gloves, shoes and bags, while clothing such as shirts made from organic materials break down into the environment.</p><br>
<h2>Other information</h2><br>
<p>Many surrounding features, structures and parks borrow their names from the creek:</p><br>
<p>Parks</p><br>
<p>Trails & Pathways</p><br>
<p>Roads</p><br>
<p>Geographic</p><br>
<p>Washington Park  is a small public, urban park  located in Downtown Dubuque, Iowa, United States. The park encompasses an entire city block, bordered on the north by West 7th Street, on the west by Bluff Street, on the south by West 6th Street, and on the east by Locust Street. The park is located between the city&#39;s post office and the Dubuque Museum of Art.</p><br>
<p>It was individually listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977,</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The block where Washington Park is located today was one of the original 35 blocks plotted out by surveyor G.W. Harrison in 1833 when the city was founded. From the beginning, the land was set aside for public use. The first church and first jail in Iowa were located on this land. In 1857, the area was designated as Washington Park.</p><br>
<p>In 1877, the Dubuque City Council had all the buildings on the block torn down. Shrubs and flowers were planted, walkways were established, and a 40 ft-high Oriental gazebo was built on the grounds for $200. This gazebo, which was built by local architects Fridolin Heer and Edward Eaescher, was widely viewed as one of the finest pavilions in the area. On August 24, 1877, approximately 2,000 people attended the formal dedication of the park.</p><br>
<p>In 1878, a public drinking fountain was erected in the park. The city paid for half the cost, with the remaining half covered by private donations. A statue of Dr. Henry Cogswell was placed on top of this drinking fountain. Cogswell had promised the city that he would donate a statue for the fountain (which was supposed to be of a local heroine who had walked some distance to stop a train before it could come to a washed out bridge and derail). When the statue was uncovered for the first time, it turned out to be a statue of Cogswell. The statue remained in place until 1900, when a group of vandals pulled the statue down and buried it under what would be a new sidewalk. The following day, the new sidewalk was poured which entombed the object. The water fountain was gone by 1912, however, the statue is rumoured to still be buried under a sidewalk at the park.</p><br>
<p>Public events at the square over the years included Buffalo Bill Cody&#39;s "Authentic Wild West Show" performing in 1896 and President William McKinley giving a speech in 1899.</p><br>
<p>By the beginning of the 20th century, the gazebo was gone. Later, during the 1970s, the park underwent a $60,000 restoration. New trees, flowers, and shrubs were planted. New lights crafted to look like antique gas lamps were placed in the park. A new steel 3/4 size replica of the original gazebo built by Bradley Iron Works was placed on the site. This restoration was made possible by the Dubuque Jaycees who made a large financial contribution to the City of Dubuque. Also the Dubuque Jaycees had put together a time capsule using a donated grave vault. Boxes were handed out to the public who were asked to place items in the boxes and return to the Park when they would be placed in the time capsule. Once the boxes filled the vault it was sealed and buried right next to the southern side of the gazebo under the rock with the plaque that explains it is not to be opened for 100 years. That opening is set for the year 2076.</p><br>
<p>During the summer of 2005, Washington Park underwent further improvements. The streets surrounding the park have been rebuilt, and the walkways in and around the park have been replaced. Lampposts designed to look like late 19th and early 20th century models have also been placed in and around the park. Again without the Dubuque Jaycees large financial contribution this progject would have been delayed. The Dubuque Jaycees has a special interest in Washington Park. Numerous times the group has been called upon and responded financially for the betterment of the park. The Group also decorates the park with a holiday theme each and every year.</p><br>
<p>Col des Mosses  is a mountain pass in the western Bernese Alps of Switzerland. The pass is located in the municipality of Ormont-Dessous in the canton of Vaud. It links Aigle, to the south in the valley of the Rhone, with Château-dŒx, to the north in the valley of the Sarine, and is flanked to the west by the Mont dOr and to the east by the Pic Chaussy.</p><br>
<h2>Road and public transports</h2><br>
<p>The pass is traversed by a major road between Aigle and Château-dŒx. From Aigle, the road ascends 1,028 m over a distance of 18.8 km, whilst from Château-dŒx it ascends 521 m over 14 km. The road is normally kept open throughout the year. Swiss Post buses services cross the pass several times a day, connecting Château-d&#39;Œx, which is on the Montreux–Oberland Bernois railway, and Le Sépey, on the Aigle–Sépey–Diablerets railway.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>The Col des Mosses is also on the Alpine Pass Route hiking trail, and is a winter sports centre. The Tour de France has crossed the Col des Mosses on five different occasions (in 1949, 1997, 2000, 2009 and 2016). The Tour de Romandie has crossed the col three times (in 2008, 2012 and 2013), and the Tour de Suisse just once (in 2010).</p><br>
<p>Mount Darwin  is a peak in Tierra del Fuego, Chile forming part of the Cordillera Darwin, the southernmost range of the Andes, just to the north of the Beagle Channel. It is formed of crystalline schists and has massive glaciers down its steep southern slopes. Monte Darwin was for a long time considered as the highest peak in Tierra del Fuego, but that distinction corresponds to a mountain unofficially named Monte Shipton, which is about 2,580 m high and is located at {{coord|54|39|33|S|69|35|54|W}}. Both peaks are best climbed in late December, January, February and March. Monte Shipton was first climbed in 1962 by Eric Shipton, E. Garcia, F. Vivanco and C. Marangunic.</p><br>
<p>Mount Darwin was given its name during the voyage of the Beagle by HMS Beagles captain Robert FitzRoy to celebrate Charles Darwin&#39;s 25th birthday on 12 February 1834. A year earlier FitzRoy had named an expanse of water to the southwest of the mountain the Darwin Sound to commemorate Darwin&#39;s quick wit and courage in saving them from being marooned when waves from a mass of ice splitting off a glacier threatened their boats.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is part of Alberto de Agostini National Park.</p><br>
<p>Villarrica  is one of Chiles most active volcanoes, rising above the lake and town of the same name, 750 km south of Santiago. It is also known as Rucapillán, a Mapuche word meaning "Pillans house". It is the westernmost of three large stratovolcanoes that trend NW-SW obliquely perpendicular to the Andean chain along the Mocha-Villarrica Fault Zone, along with Quetrupillán and the Chilean portion of Lanín, are protected within Villarrica National Park. Guided ascents are popular during summer months.</p><br>
<p>Villarrica, with its lava of basaltic-andesitic composition, is one of a small number worldwide known to have an active (but in this case intermittent) lava lake within its crater. The volcano usually generates strombolian eruptions with ejection of incandescent pyroclasts and lava flows. Rainfall plus melted snow and glacier ice can cause massive lahars (mud and debris flows), such as during the eruptions of 1964 and 1971.</p><br>
<p>Villarrica is one of 9 volcanoes currently monitored by the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project. The project is collecting data on the carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide emission rates from subaerial volcanoes.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>Villarica stands in the Chilean Central Valley as the westernmost of an alignment of three large stratovolcanoes. The alignment is attributed to the existence of an old fracture in the crust, the North West-South East trending Mocha-Villarrica Fault Zone,</p><br>
<p>Villarrica covers an area of 400 km and has an estimated volume of 250 km. It contains volcanic caves and about 26 scoria cones. The constant degassing at the lava lake turns the otherwise quite effusive lava more viscous, heightening its explosive potential. Two large ignimbrite layers are visible; the Licán Ignimbrite and the more recent Pucón Ignimbrite.</p><br>
<p>Villarrica emerged during the Middle Pleistocene and grew forming a large stratocone of similar dimensions to the current edifice. 100,000 years ago during the Valdivia Interglacial the ancestral Villarrica collapsed following an eruption and formed a large elliptical caldera of 6.5 and 4.2 km in diameter. During the Llanquihue glaciation Villarrica produced pyroclastic flow deposits, subglacial andesite lavas and dacite dykes. It collapsed once again 13,700 years ago forming a new smaller caldera, among other pyroclastic flows the Licán Ignimbrite has been related to this event. Beginning with the Licán Ignimbrite, generated just after the last deglaciation, activity continued in similar fashion. The Pucón Ignimbrite was ejected during a minor collapse of the uppermost stratocone 3,700 years ago.</p><br>
<h3>Glaciers</h3><br>
<p>The upper part of Villarrica is permanently covered by snow and has some 40 km of glaciers, the largest of which is the Pichillancahue-Turbio Glacier situated on its southeastern flank. Ash from the eruptions can increase the ablation of snow and ice by absorption of solar radiation. Some ash coverings are thicker than 5 cm and insulate the glacier, decreasing ablation instead of enhancing it. Between 1961 and 2003, Villarrica lost 25% of its glaciated surface and the glaciers shrank at an average rate of -0.4 km each year.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Villarrica is popular for climbing with guided hikes to the crater from the town of Pucón, but these may be suspended due to cloud or volcanic activity. Helicopter over-flights have been available since 2007. In the winter (July–September) a ski resort operates on the northern slopes.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<p>Villarrica is one of Chile&#39;s most active volcanoes; eruptions have been recorded since the conquest of Chile and the founding of the city of Villarrica in 1552. There are uncertainties in the eruptive record in the first half of the 17th century due to the Mapuche and Huilliche uprising which led to the surrender or abandonment of Spanish settlements during the destruction of the Seven Cities. The earliest recorded eruption occurred in 1558, followed by at least 65 others with assumed Volcanic Explosivity Indexes of 1-3.</p><br>
<h3>1964 eruption</h3><br>
<p>In the two last weeks of February 1964 Villarrica produced small, violent lava effusions and tremors. On 1 March, at 2:45 am, it begun a strombolian eruption, and residents of Coñaripe, a wood-logging town, fled to the surrounding hills. Melting snow and ice from the Pichillancahue-Turbio Glacier combined with heavy rainfall to produce several lahars. Coñaripe, on the north-western shores of Calafquén Lake, had about half of its buildings destroyed, necessitating reconstruction further east.</p><br>
<h3>1971 eruption</h3><br>
<p>On 29 October 1971, at 4:00 am, there were several explosions in the crater and a column of black and white smoke appeared. One month later, at quarter to midnight on 29 November, Villarrica begun a new eruptive cycle. Pyroclasts were ejected and the snow surrounding the crater melted. After a brief halt in activity lava pored from a new vent on the north-east side, melting considerable amounts of water and causing lahars. These lahars affected Pichaye, El Turbio, Collentañe, Minetué, Molco, Voipir and Curarrehue, all of them in the Trancura River basin. Toxic sulphurous gases made the air unbreathable in Villarrica and Pucón where at least 15 deaths were reported.</p><br>
<h3>2015 eruption</h3><br>
<p>Approximately at 03:01 AM on March 3, 2015, it erupted, raising the alert to red up to 10 kilometers around. The eruption exceeded the height of the volcano, causing a loud explosion that woke the neighbors, and forcing the evacuation of 3,385 people in nearby communities.</p><br>
<p>On February 7, 2015, Villarrica triggered a yellow alert at both Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería and Onemi. Minor explosions and low emissions of ashes were visible. Ten days later, another eruption occurred. The National Service of Geology and Mining (Sernageomin) declared a yellow alert after volcanic and seismic activity increased again, while the National Emergency Office of the Interior Ministry (ONEMI) kept the yellow alert. The Southern Andean Volcano Observatory (OVDAS) indicated that a new imminent eruption would continue until 12:30 of March 19, 2015. As of July 2015, the eruption is continuing. Volcanic gas emissions from this volcano are measured by a Multi-Component Gas Analyzer System, which detects pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas, improving prediction of volcanic activity.</p><br>
<p>Tofua Caldera is the summit caldera of a steep-sided composite cone that forms Tofua Island in Tonga. Tofua Island is in Tongas Haapai island group. Pre-caldera activity is recorded by a sequence of pyroclastic deposits and lavas constituting the older cone, followed on the northern part of the island by froth lavas or welded and unwelded ignimbrite. Following the caldera collapse, lavas were erupted from the northern part of the island and the caldera-rim fissure zone, scoria and lavas from the caldera-wall fissure zones, pyroclastics and lavas from intracaldera cones, and recent pyroclastic fall deposits on the outer cone. Eruptive products are mainly basaltic andesites and andesites, plus occasional dacite flows within the older cone. A postcaldera cone with fumarolic activity  is in the northern part of the caldera; a crater lake with 500 m depth occupies most of the remainder.</p><br>
<p>Most historical eruptions have been small explosions from Lofia cone along the northern caldera rim. The eruptions of 1958-59 caused most of the islanders to evacuate for a year or more.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>Tofua is visited by fifty men from Kotu Island for 2 weeks each year. They are there primarily to grow kava (Piper methysticum) for export to Tongatapu. This gives the island an average yearly population of 2.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Mutiny on the Bounty (1789) took place about 30 nmi from Tofua. Captain William Bligh navigated the overcrowded 23 ft open launch on an epic 41-day voyage first to Tofua and then to Timor equipped only with a sextant and a pocket watch &mdash; no charts or compass. He recorded the distance as 3,618 nmi. He passed through the difficult Torres Strait along the way and landed on June 14. The only casualty of his voyage was a crewman named John Norton who was stoned to death by the natives of Tofua, the first island they tried to land on.</p><br>
<p>At Tofua (Bligh spelled it Tofoa), Bligh and eighteen loyalists sought refuge in a cave to augment their meager provisions. In the March 1968 issue of the National Geographic Magazine, Luis Marden claimed to have found this cave and the grave of John Norton. Both findings were later disproved by Bengt Danielsson (who had been a member of the 1947 Kon-Tiki expedition) in the June 1985 issue of the Pacific Islands Monthly. Danielsson identified Blighs cave as lying on the sheltered northwest coast, where Bligh identified it; Mardens cave lies on the exposed southeast coast. Additionally, Danielsson thought it highly unlikely that the Tofuans would have allotted any grave site to Norton, or that the grave, if allotted, would have been preserved for two centuries.</p><br>
<p>In May 1943, a lifeboat containing 23 survivors from the Liberty ship SS Phoebe A. Hearst, which sank after being torpedoed by the Japanese submarine I19 on 30 April 1943, landed. The crew survived on shellfish and coconuts until spotted by a Lockheed Hudson patrol aircraft of the Royal New Zealand Air Force and were picked up the following day by the YMS-1 class minesweeper YMS-89 of the US Navy and taken to Tongatapu.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1970s a group of eight Tongan fishermen were shipwrecked on Ata island and then survived for 18 months before being rescued by an Australian millionaire who, upon visiting the island out of curiosity, came upon the naked bearded men when scanning the island&#39;s coast through his binoculars. It took the men eight months to create fire and the flame was maintained through wind, rain and gale for the subsequent 10 months with each taking shifts to protect it. Before making fire they lived primarily on coconuts and raw seafood. After being documented by ABC news in America the story faded away; many of the men involved live on Lifuka island.</p><br>
<h2>The oral tradition of Kao and Tofua</h2><br>
<p>E. W. Gifford, recording Tongan myths and tales in the 1920s, documented this explanation for Tofua&#39;s caldera and the creation of Kao Island to the north:</p><br>
<p>"Three deities from Samoa, Tuvuvata, Sisi, and Faingaa, conspired to steal Tofua. So they came and tore up the high mountain by its very roots and its place was taken by a large lake. This enraged the Tongan gods very much and one of them, Tafakula, essayed to stop the thieves. He stood on the island of Luahako and bent over so as to show his anus. It shone so brilliantly that the Samoan deities were struck with fear, thinking that the sun was rising and that their dastardly works was about to be revealed. Hence, they dropped the mountain and fled to Samoa. The mountain became the island of Kao."</p><br>
<p>Middelgrundsfortet or Fort Middelgrund is a sea fort located on an artificial island in the Øresund between Copenhagen and Malmö. The fortress is constructed at a point where the seabed is 7 meters below the water surface, and at the northern meeting point of the straits Kongedybet and Hollænderdybet.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Christian IX&#39;s government constructed the fort between 1890&ndash;94 to serve as a part of Copenhagen&#39;s sea-fortifications, partly using material excavated from Frihavnen. It is one of three artificial islands that were created to defend the entrance to Copenhagen&#39;s harbor. (The other two are Flakfortet and Trekroner Fort.)</p><br>
<p>Middelgrundsfortet was the largest sea fortress in the world, and is still the largest man-made island without abutment, with an area, including wave breakers, of approximately 70 000 m²; the buildings total approximately 15 000 m². A HAWK battery was placed on the island in the 1950s. The fortress remained an active military installation until 1984; in 2002 it was sold to a private investor.</p><br>
<p>The Danish scout organisation Det Danske Spejderkorps bought the island in February 2015 for 20 million Danish kroner (£1,94M) with money donated by Nordea-Fonden and A. P. Møller Fonden. Det Danske Spejderkorps intends to develop the island for all Danish youth to use, not just the scouts.</p><br>
<h2>Facilities</h2><br>
<p>The fort has been used as a hotel, with 200 rooms linked by 2 miles of corridors.</p><br>
<p>Ferries connect Middelgrundsfortet with Langelinie, Copenhagen.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>A view of Middelgrundsfortet from the northwest is seen at 1:07:16 25 in the 1975 Olsen Gang film The Olsen Gang on the Track.</p><br>
<p>The Fairmount Water Works in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania was Philadelphias second municipal waterworks. Designed in 1812 by Frederick Graff and built between 1812 and 1872, it operated until 1909, winning praise for its design and becoming a popular tourist attraction. It now houses a restaurant and an interpretive center that explains the waterworks purpose and local watershed history. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976 for its architecture and its engineering innovations. It was the nation&#39;s first water supply to use paddle wheels to move water.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Following a series of yellow fever epidemics in the late 18th century (which was at the time thought to be caused by unclean water or by rotting matter in the streets) city leaders appointed a "Watering Committee". The initial water system was designed by Benjamin Latrobe and accepted by the committee in 1799. His system utilized two steam engines (in series) to pump water from the Schuylkill River, into the city, then into two wooden tanks that held a total of just 57,000 USgal. From the wooden tanks, the water was gravity fed into a series of wooden water mains. The system was plagued with problems. If either of the steam engines failed, the water supply to the city was cut off.</p><br>
<p>The committee began searching for another solution and eventually picked John Davis and Frederick Graff (Latrobe&#39;s apprentice and successor as chief engineer) to design a new waterworks, in order to meet the demand of the increasing numbers of city residents and to solve the problem of inadequate storage capacity.</p><br>
<p>The Fairmount Water Works was initially constructed between 1812 and 1815 on the east bank of the Schuylkill River. The Water Works initially consisted of a 3 e6USgal earthen reservoir atop Faire Mount (now site of the Philadelphia Museum of Art), and a pump house with two steam engines to pump water. Between 1819 and 1821, a 1,600 ft dam was built across the Schuylkill to direct water to a Mill House with three water wheels that replaced the steam engines in 1822. Later, Jonval turbines were used to lift the water in a New Mill House and in the renovated Old Mill House.</p><br>
<p>The facility, the industrial nature of which was disguised by a Classical Revival exterior, became a tourist attraction for its beauty and its location on the riverside. Visitors included Charles Dickens, who praised it for its pleasant design and public usefulness.</p><br>
<p>The Fairmount Water Works eventually closed in 1909, after years of service, when several newer and more technologically updated facilities were built.</p><br>
<h2>Fairmount Dam</h2><br>
<p>Completed in 1822, Fairmount Dam cut diagonally across the river, channeled water into the Waterworks, and acted as a spillway. The Schuylkill is a tidal river, so it also prevented brackish water in the Delaware River from mixing with the fresh water. Above it, the dam created the "Schuylkill Pond", several miles of tranquil water used for recreation.</p><br>
<h2>Present day</h2><br>
<p>After the waterworks closed in 1909 the facility was used for several purposes, including the Philadelphia Aquarium (which closed in 1962) and an indoor swimming pool which closed in 1973. In more recent years attempts have been made to return the waterworks to its previous position as an engaging tourist attraction. Despite a severe fire which caused setbacks to the restoration, an interpretive center has now been added and tours are regularly given. Its position near Boathouse Row and the Philadelphia Museum of Art is hoped to aid in making it a regularly visited tourist site once more.</p><br>
<p>The Fairmount Water Works buildings now house the Fairmount Water Works Interpretive Center (FWWIC), a hands-on science and environmental educational center, created by the Philadelphia Water Department. The FWWIC offers interactive exhibits, lectures, events, and school programs.</p><br>
<p>In December 2004, Michael Karloutsos won a 25-year, $120,000/year lease with the Fairmount Park Commission. After a highly publicized renovation, Karloutsos opened Water Works Restaurant and Lounge within the Water Works on July 20, 2006.</p><br>
<p>Lake Adelaide is a 109 acre lake located in the northwest corner of Highlands County, Florida. It is bounded on the north by Holiday Ranch RV Park, which borders the Polk-Highlands County line, on the east by Adelaide Shores RV Resort and on the west by the Avon Park Lakes residential subdivision. Lake Adelaide is two miles  north of the town of Avon Park, Florida.</p><br>
<p>Holiday Ranch RV Park and Adelaide Shores RV Resort are private developments with boat access to the lake. A public boat ramp is located on the Avon Park Lakes side. Both RV parks have sites available for mobile homes and RVs. Adelaide Shores, a retirement community, has 400 sites, a club house, a large heated swimming pool, a boat dock, a walking trail on the lake shore and laundry facilities.</p><br>
<p>Lake Adelaide is about twenty feet deep at its deepest spot and has an average depth of seven feet.</p><br>
<p>South Lake is a lake in the South of Jiaxing, Zhejiang, China, and covers an area of 0.54 km². It is also known as "Mandarin Duck Lake" due to the its shape.</p><br>
<p>Alongside the lake are the ruins of the Misty Rain Tower, which was first built in the 10th century AD. In the year 1548, during the Ming Dynasty, the local government dredged the waterways and piled up the mud into the center of South Lake, forming an islet. The Misty Rain tower was rebuilt on the islet the next year. In the following years, a group of ancient garden-style architectures emerged around it.</p><br>
<p>The 1st National Congress of the Communist Party of China was transferred from Shanghai to Jiaxing in 1921 and the final agenda was carried out in a boat on South Lake, which concluded with the establishment of the party.</p><br>
<p>Wedding Cake Island is an island off Coogee Beach, Sydney, which protects the beach from most swells. It is also known as Lemo&#39;s Island.</p><br>
<p>The most probable source of the name is the shape of the island - it resembles a wedding cake, particularly when the white water breaks over the island, giving the appearance of &#39;icing&#39;. Another theory is that bird droppings on the island gave the appearance of icing on a cake.</p><br>
<p>The island is a good scuba diving spot and also is the site of ANZAC day commemorations by the local surf community. Every year in commemoration of ANZAC day, surfers load up their surfboards and backpacks with cartons of beer and drink, and paddle out on their boards from Coogee Beach to Wedding Cake Island.</p><br>
<p>Midnight Oil recorded a namesake track for the EP Bird Noises, released in 1980. It was also covered by the Australian surf group The Atlantics on the album Delightful Rain in 2006. The Atlantics often include it as part of their live set, with Midnight Oil&#39;s blessing. Now, Australian instrumental surf rock band, The Break (which includes Midnight Oil members: drummer Rob Hirst and guitarists Jim Moginie and Martin Rotsey, Violent Femmes bassist Brian Ritchie and Hunters and Collectors trumpet player, Jack Howard) play the song regularly in their shows, being an inaugural part of Midnight Oil&#39;s history of wanting to do instrumental surf rock music.</p><br>
<p>Going-to-the-Sun Mountain  is located in Glacier National Park and rises dramatically above St. Mary Valley just north of the Going-to-the-Sun Road. The mountain was named by James Willard Schultz in 1888.</p><br>
<h2>Origin of name</h2><br>
<p>During the winter of 1887-1888, James Willard Schultz, an early hunting guide in the St. Mary Lakes region, and his family built a cabin on the north shore of upper Saint Mary Lake. While hunting on Red Eagle Mountain with his Pikuni friend, Tail-Feathers-Coming-Over-the-Hill, Schultz gave this mountain the name it bears today. Warren Hanna, Schultz’s biographer describes the naming thus:</p><br>
<p>Alternatively, numerous Blackfeet Indian legends are credited with the origins of the mountains&#39; name. Used by the Blackfeet as a location for vision quests, it is one of the most accessible major mountain peaks in Glacier National Park. According to several sources, the actual Blackfeet name for the mountain is The-Face-of-Sour-Spirit-Who-Went-Back-to-The-Sun-After-His-Work-Was-Done Mountain, in explanation of the snowfields on the mountainside which, as viewed from the west, make the outline of a face.</p><br>
<p>The Chang La  is a high mountain pass in Ladakh, India. It is claimed to be the second highest motorable road in the world . Chang La is approached from Leh via Kharu and Sekti village by an asphalt road. The climb is very steep and requires a careful drive. The stretch of 10-15 km road on either side from Chang la is loose dirt and slush.During the summer months specifically the tourist season, small streams appear across the road, making the climb a challenge for the bikers. The descent from Chang La towards Tangtse or Darbuk is again very steep. As per the medics, it is advisable to not stay at the top for more than 20-25 mins as it could be detrimental to health owing to its high altitude.</p><br>
<p>The Chang La is on the route to Pangong Lake from Leh. The name literally means "Pass towards the South" or "Pass in the South" (Chang=south, La=Pass). It is falsely claimed that the pass is named after the supposed sadhu Changla Baba, a myth propagated by the dedication of a temple at the pass to the supposed Changla Baba. If any such sadhu exists or existed, he would have been named for the pass, rather than vice versa (since the name "changla baba" means the "baba of the southern pass". The small town of Tangste is the nearest settlement. The Changla Pass is the main gateway for the Changthang Plateau situated in the Himalayas. The nomadic tribes of the region are collectively known as the Changpa or Chang-pa. The world’s highest research station, established by the Defence Research and Development Organisation is functional in Chang La at a height of 17,664 ft.</p><br>
<p>The Windover Archeological Site is an Early Archaic  archaeological site found in Brevard County near Titusville, Florida, USA, on the central east coast of the state. Windover is a muck pond where skeletal remains of 168 individuals were found buried in the peat at the bottom of the pond. The skeletons were well preserved because of the characteristics of peat. In addition, remarkably well-preserved brain tissue has been recovered from many skulls from the site. DNA from the brain tissue has been sequenced. The collection of human skeletal remains and artifacts recovered from Windover Pond represent among the largest finds of each type from the Archaic Period.</p><br>
<p>The Windover dig site is a small pond, about.25 acre in area, that has held water continuously since sometime between 9000 and 8000 BC. It is next to the Atlantic coastal ridge about 5 mi from Cape Canaveral. As the sea level was considerably lower 7,000 to 8,000 years ago than it is today, the pond originally sat above the water table, and was filled only by rainfall and runoff from the surrounding land. At that time the pond had a relatively thin layer of peat under a thin layer of water. The subsequent rise in sea level raised the local water table, and in more recent times the pond has been fed by groundwater as well as rainfall. In 1984 the pond had a thick layer of peat, with five strata described by the archaeologists who excavated the pond. The peat in the center of the pond was covered by 6 ft of water.</p><br>
<h2>Discovery and excavation</h2><br>
<p>The site was discovered in 1982 when work began on building a road across the pond in a new housing development, Windover Farms. A backhoe operator noticed several skulls in the bucket of his machine. The sheriff and medical examiner determined that the burials were not recent. The local forensic expert originally believed he was examining modern Caucasian remains. The developers, Jack Eckerd and Jim Swann, halted construction at the pond and called in archaeologists. Radiocarbon dating on two bones excavated from the pond by the backhoe, paid for by the developers, yielded dates of 7,210 years and 7,320 years Before Present, establishing the importance of the find. The developers changed their development plans in order to leave the pond intact and donated $60,000 worth of pumping equipment to drain the pond for excavation.</p><br>
<p>Funding to excavate the pond was acquired in 1984. The buried bones were 6 ft or deeper beneath the surface of the peat at the bottom of the pond, under 3 to 10 ft of water. Researchers used a network of 160 wells around the pond to lower the water table enough to permit excavation of the peat. The workers used shovels and hand tools to remove the peat until the level of the burials was reached. One of the lead archaeologists compared excavating the peat to trying to dig chocolate mousse under water. Only half of the pond was excavated, with the remainder left undisturbed for future investigation.</p><br>
<h2>Human remains</h2><br>
<p>The remains found included bones of males and females of all ages from infants to about 60 years, a total of 168 individuals. The average height of adult males was 5 ft. Children constituted about half the remains. Skeletons showed the effects of disease and healed wounds, allowing forensic studies. Many bones of children showed interrupted growth, perhaps due to severe disease or malnutrition. Osteoporosis was evident in older females. Adults of both sexes exhibited a high incidence of osteoarthritis, also a continuing problem for humans. Some skeletons showed wounds that were likely the cause of death. The pelvis of one male had a bone spear point embedded in it. Others had severe skull fractures.</p><br>
<p>Children and teenagers were buried with more grave goods than were adults, indicating the high value placed on children. Skeletons included one of a male aged about 15 who had spina bifida. All of his bones were found to have been fragile. One of his feet was missing and the stump of his lower leg had healed. As his spinal condition almost certainly meant the boy was paralyzed below the waist, this find was important for assessing the society&#39;s commitment to ensure his survival for 15 years in a hunter-gatherer community.</p><br>
<p>While some of the remains were mixed, about 100 undisturbed burials were found with fully articulated bones, in roughly the correct position and relationship in the body. Most were buried in a flexed position, on their left sides, and with their heads toward the west. The bodies were held down in the graves by sharpened stakes. The bodies were buried in clusters, in five or six episodes of short duration that were scattered over a thousand years. Thirty-seven of the graves contained woven fabrics which demonstrate a relatively complex weaving technique and indicate that the bodies had been wrapped for burial.</p><br>
<p>In late 1984 the archaeologists discovered that brain tissue had survived in many of the skulls. Lumps of greasy, brownish material was found in several skulls when they were opened for examination. Suspecting that this was brain tissue, the researchers sent the intact skulls for X-ray, CAT scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which showed recognizable brain structures. In addition, cell structures were seen under a microscope. At least 90 of the recovered bodies had brain tissue that survived, due to the preservative effects of the peat. The state of preservation of the brain tissues indicated that the bodies were buried in the peat within 24 to 48 hours after death. This preservation allowed researchers to sequence DNA from the brains. The DNA indicated Asian origin and a rare haplogroup, X. The DNA also indicated that the same family used this grave site for over a century.</p><br>
<p>Gut contents were found with many of the burials. These included seeds of wild grapes, elderberries and prickly pear fruit, often in large quantities. The people&#39;s teeth were worn down early in life, presumably from sand in food, but very few had cavities.</p><br>
<h2>Artifacts</h2><br>
<p>Many artifacts that were deposited with the bodies were also preserved. Archaeologists at this site were able to recover a total of 86 pieces of fabric from 37 graves. These included seven different textile weaves, which appeared to have been used for clothing, bags, matting, and possibly blankets and ponchos. Numerous other artifacts, such as atlatls and projectile points, were also found at Windover. The occupants of Windover hunted animals, fished, and gathered plants. They used bottle gourds for storage, which comprise the earliest evidence for vegetable container storage discovered in North America. Animal bones and shells found in the graves indicated that the people ate white-tailed deer, raccoon, opossum, birds, fish and shellfish.</p><br>
<h2>Water burials</h2><br>
<p>Windover is one of a number of Archaic period sites in Florida with underwater burials in peat. Similar burials occurred at Little Salt Spring 5,200 to 6,800 years ago, Bay West (in Collier County) 5,940 to 6,840 years ago, and Republic Grove (in Hardee County) 5,690 to 6,470 years ago. Stakes were driven into the peat through fabrics wrapped around bodies at Windover. Similar stakes were found associated with burials at Bay West and Republic Grove. The stakes may have been used to help hold the bodies underwater. There were also burials (although not in peat) in the sinkhole at Warm Mineral Springs, dating as much as 12,000 years ago. Robin Brown notes in connection with these underwater burials that many Native American groups have a tradition that spirits of the dead are blocked by water. William McGoun suggests that a "water mortuary cult" may have been widespread in southern Florida from Paleoindian times into the historic period. As late as 1,500 to 2,000 years ago, bundled, defleshed bones were stored on a wooden platform set in the middle of a pond at Fort Center.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>Windover Pond is one of a number of sites in Florida excavated since 1970 that have led to a major reassessment of the Archaic period in Florida. Jerald T. Milanich states that Windover has provided "unprecedented and dramatic" information about early Archaic people in Florida, and that the Windover site may be "one of the most significant archaeological sites ever excavated.".</p><br>
<p>Mont Donon is the highest peak in the northern Vosges. It is a Category 2 climb in the Tour de France.</p><br>
<p>On Donon, there is an 80 metre tall lattice tower for TV transmission. Its TV transmission antennas are covered by a polymeric cylinder, which gives its structure a characteristic shape.</p><br>
<p>An engraved block of sandstone near the summit commemorates the conception of Victor Hugo.</p><br>
<p>Many archaeological remains of a Gallo-Roman sanctuary have been found on and around the top of the mountain. They are now displayed in the Musée archéologique de Strasbourg.</p><br>
<h2>World War I</h2><br>
<p>During the earliest stages of World War I, Mount Donon was the site of heavy fighting between German and French troops between 14 August and 22 August 1914 and specially on 21 and 22 August.</p><br>
<p>Donons bataille1.jpgMap of Donon Battle.</p><br>
<p>Monument sommet.jpgMemorial to German troops fallen on August 21, 1914</p><br>
<p>Cimetière2 donon.JPGMemorial to French troops fallen on August 21 and 22, 1914</p><br>
<p>Stèle tombe commune au sommet du Petit Donon.jpgGrave of 2 Germans killed on August 22</p><br>
<p>Stèle tombe commune N° 37 au sommet du Petit Donon.jpgGrave of 3 Frenchmen</p><br>
<p>Icehouse Bottom is a prehistoric Native American site in Monroe County, Tennessee, located on the Little Tennessee River in the southeastern United States. Native Americans were using the site as a semi-permanent hunting camp as early as 7500 BC, making it one of the oldest-known habitation areas in what is now the state of Tennessee. Analysis of the site&#39;s Woodland period  artifacts shows evidence of an extensive trade network that reached to indigenous peoples in Georgia, North Carolina, and Ohio. This was later an area of known Cherokee settlements, the historic people encountered by Anglo-European settlers in the 18th and 19th centuries.</p><br>
<p>Since 1979, the Icehouse Bottom site has been submerged by Tellico Lake, an impoundment of the Little Tennessee River created by the construction of Tellico Dam. Excavations were conducted at the site in the early 1970s prior to dam construction, in anticipation of inundation. Tellico Lake was developed by and is managed by the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the shoreline immediately above the Icehouse Bottom site is part of the McGhee-Carson Unit of the Tellico Lake Wildlife Management Area, which is managed by the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency.</p><br>
<h2>Geographical setting</h2><br>
<p>The Little Tennessee River enters Monroe County from the east, where it has sliced a gap between the Great Smoky Mountains and the Unicoi Mountains. It winds westward for some 40 mi before emptying into the Tennessee River near Lenoir City. Tellico Lake, created in 1979, covers the lower 33 mi of the Little Tennessee and the lower 22 mi of the Tellico River.</p><br>
<p>Icehouse Bottom is an archeological site of ancient human occupation that was located along the south bank of the Little Tennessee. Prior to construction of the dam and creation of Tellico Lake, this site was approximately 21 mi above the mouth of the river at its confluence with the Tennessee River, and nearly 2 mi above the river&#39;s confluence with the Tellico River. The site was located immediately downstream from the base of a steep hill known as Rockcrusher Bluff.</p><br>
<p>The McGhee-Carson Unit of the Tellico Lake Wildlife Management Area includes what was once the top of Rockcrusher Bluff. When Tellico Lake was filled and flooded the area, the bluff became a peninsula. The entrance to McGhee-Carson is located along Tennessee State Route 360 (Citico Road), a few miles south of the road&#39;s junction with USA Route 411. Carson Road traverses the unit, ending abruptly at the lakeshore above what was once Icehouse Bottom.</p><br>
<h2>Historical information</h2><br>
<p>Although little historical information regarding Icehouse Bottom is available, numerous historical areas later developed within a two-mile (3-km) radius. Fort Loudoun, a frontier fort built in 1756, was located about one mile to the north, and the Tellico Blockhouse, a federal trading outpost built in 1794, was located slightly more than a mile to the northeast. The Overhill Cherokee villages of Tomotley and Toqua were located opposite Rockcrusher Bluff to the south. The Overhill village of Tuskegee, which is best known as the birthplace of the Cherokee scholar Sequoyah, was located almost immediately northwest of the Icehouse Bottom site.</p><br>
<p>In 1819, the Cherokee sold the Overhill territory south of the Little Tennessee River, which included all of what is now Monroe County, to the United States government. Shortly thereafter, an early settler known as "Pioneer" John McGhee purchased several thousand acres along the Little Tennessee River, including the Icehouse Bottom site. He developed some plantations in the area. By the early 1900s, the Icehouse Bottom site was within the boundaries of a tobacco farm owned by John Carson. Carson&#39;s family owned the land when the Tennessee Valley Authority began buying property along the river for the creation of the Tellico Reservoir.</p><br>
<p>Although it is unclear how Icehouse Bottom got its name, historian Carson Brewer wrote of a McGhee family story that recalled an "ice-house" located in the 1800s on their lands in the Little Tennessee Valley. According to Brewer, a hole about 30 ft in circumference would be dug in winter, and ice would be cut from the river or a frozen stream, placed in the hole, and covered with sand. This preserved the ice through the following summer.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological work at Icehouse Bottom</h2><br>
<p>In 1967, the Tennessee Valley Authority began construction on Tellico Dam at the mouth of the Little Tennessee; it purchased some 22,000 acre along the rivers shoreline. That same year, the University of Tennessee Department of Anthropology, under contract with the National Park Service, began a survey of the valley to determine its archaeological resources and to select sites for excavation prior to inundation. Although project members initially were given two years before the dam was expected to become operational, litigation over environmental concerns pushed the dams operational date to 1979.</p><br>
<p>This allowed for much more extensive archaeological work at the Little Tennessee Valley sites, which was important when their great age became known. Excavations were carried out at Icehouse Bottom in 1969, 1970, 1971, and 1977. The sites location in the rivers flood plain meant that each heavy rain had added a fresh layer of earth to the site, making it easy to stratify.</p><br>
<h3>Archaic period inhabitants</h3><br>
<p>The 1969-1971 excavations uncovered the charred remains of numerous clay hearths situated along the river at Icehouse Bottom. Radiocarbon dating has established the date of the earliest of these hearths at around 7500 BC, during the Early Archaic period (8000-6000 BC). This is one of the oldest-known semi-permanent habitation sites within the boundaries of present-day Tennessee. Some of these hearths still displayed impressions made by netting or basketry resting on the clay while it was still moist. Other Archaic-period artifacts uncovered at Icehouse Bottom include a unique type of Early Archaic bifurcate projectile point and Late Archaic (3000-1000 BC) netsinkers.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the Archaic period, Icehouse Bottom was likely used as a "base camp" and occupied by indigenous peoples on a seasonal or other semi-permanent basis. The camp consisted of several dozen dwellings that were built along several hundred feet along the river terrace. Rockcrusher Bluff contains various outcroppings of chert, which would have been sought for use in making tools and weapons. The early inhabitants of Icehouse Bottom had a diet primarily of white-tailed deer, black bear, acorns, and hickory nuts. They also hunted and ate smaller animals, including squirrel and rabbit.</p><br>
<h3>Woodland period inhabitants</h3><br>
<p>The Woodland-period (1000 BC-1000 AD) material recovered from Icehouse Bottom is notable primarily for the presence of maize, an important crop cultivated by indigenous peoples, that dates to as early as 100 AD. Because maize could be grown and stored, it supported increases in population density and the development of centers with a variety of skilled artisans. The Woodland period materials also include non-local pottery sherds, attesting to the people being part of a large trading network. Pottery fragments uncovered at Icehouse Bottom show that the site&#39;s inhabitants were interacting with people of other Middle Woodland sites around the region, including the Hopewell people of Ohio. Woodland-period human burials and cremations have frequently been found in the Icehouse Bottom vicinity.</p><br>
<p>Icehouse Bottom may have been a manufacturing center of sorts during the Middle Woodland period. Sherds confirm a trade network that included not only the Hopewell centers, but also the Sylva and Garden Creek areas of North Carolina, the McMahan Indian Mounds a few miles to the east in what is now Sevierville, and sites as far away as Georgia. Several sherds uncovered at the Hopewell site in Ohio were probably manufactured at Icehouse Bottom. Icehouse Bottom may have also served as a regional distribution center for mica. The site appeared to have declined in use after the Middle Woodland period, although a few fragments indicative of the early Mississippian period have been found.</p><br>
<p>Arresø is the largest lake, based on area, in Denmark. It covers 40,72 km²  and is situated on the island of Zealand.</p><br>
<p>Arresø is located in the northern parts of Zealand in the region of Hovedstaden just north of Ølsted and east of Frederiksværk. The lake empties into Roskilde Fjord through the Arresø Canal in Frederiksværk. The artificial canal was begun around 1717 by royal command, and the work was carried out by Danish soldiers and Swedish POWs.</p><br>
<p>There are a number of rivers and streams running into Arresø of which the Pøleå is the most significant. The landscape is especially hilly along the lake&#39;s west side. Among these ridges are Maglehøj in the town of Frederiksværk and Arrenakke Hills, which offers a magnificent view of the lake. East of Frederiksværk, the Arrenæs peninsula juts out into the lake.</p><br>
<p>Historically, Arresø was a fjord, connected to the Kattegat, but the land northwest of here rose after the last Ice Age, locking the waters in and creating the lake.</p><br>
<p>Arresø has a rich bird and floral life. Sea eagles have returned as nesting birds, and beavers have been reintroduced. Several wildlife preserves have been set up around the lake and it will also form part of national park Royal North Sealand currently being planned and established in North Zealand.</p><br>
<p>Th renovated wooden ship of M/S Frederikke, offers boat tours on the lake between May and September, embarking from Arresødal.</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p>http://www.msfrederikke.dk/</p><br>
<p></revision></p><br>
<p>Hawthorn Hill in Oakwood, Ohio, USA, was the post-1914 home of Orville, Milton, and Katharine Wright. Wilbur and Orville Wright intended for it to be their joint home, but Wilbur died in 1912, before the home&#39;s 1914 completion. The brothers hired the prominent Dayton architectural firm of Schenck and Williams to realize their plans. Orville and his father Milton and sister Katharine occupied the home in 1914.</p><br>
<p>Though the property now comprises three acres (1.2 ha), the mansion originally sat on 17 acre. The Wrights named the property after the hawthorn trees found on the property. There are at least 150 hawthorn trees on the site.</p><br>
<p>Orville Wright designed some of the mechanical features of the house such as the water storage tank used to collect and recycle rainwater, and the central vacuum system; these features reflect his creative genius. For 34 years, this house was the gathering place for the greats and near-greats in the history of American aviation.</p><br>
<p>The home was owned by the NCR Corporation after Orvilles death until August 18, 2006, when the company donated the historic home to the Wright Family Foundation in honor of Orvilles 135th birthday and National Aviation Day. NCR used it as a guesthouse for corporate VIPs and for corporate functions. On occasion they opened the home to the general public.</p><br>
<p>In September 2007, Dayton History, in cooperation with the Wright Family Foundation, began offering scheduled public tours of Hawthorn Hill.</p><br>
<p>NCR extensively redecorated the mansions interior after Orvilles death. Only Orvilles study approximates its pre-1948 appearance. However, Edward A. Deeds, then-chairman of the National Cash Register Company sent a photographer to the home immediately following Orvilles death to visually record the interior of the house at that time.</p><br>
<p>The USA Secretary of the Interior designated Hawthorn Hill a National Historic Landmark in 1991 and added it to the USA World Heritage Tentative List in January 2008 as a part of the Dayton Aviation Sites listing. It is a component of the National Aviation Heritage Area.</p><br>
<p>The Falkenstein is one of the best known climbing peaks in Saxon Switzerland.</p><br>
<p>It is situated near the rocky Schrammsteine ridge southeast of the town of Bad Schandau.</p><br>
<p>The Falkenstein is nearly 90 m high and consists of sandstone. In the Middle Ages there were fortifications on top of the rock. Even today, the steps carved into the rock are still visible.</p><br>
<p>In 1864 the first ascent of the rock was made in modern times by gymnasts from Bad Schandau. This ascent, using the climbing route known now as the Turnerweg, is also seen as the "birthday" of Saxon rock-climbing.</p><br>
<p>The peak of the Falkenstein can only be reached by skilled climbers. Nowadays more than 100 routes lead to the top. The most popular ascent is Schusterweg (III), which was first climbed by Dr. Oscar Schuster in 1893.</p><br>
<p>Other famous climbs on the Falkenstein (with their Saxon rating grades) are the:</p><br>
<p>Südriss (VIIa) - first ascent by Oliver Perry-Smith in 1913</p><br>
<p>Direkte Westkante (VIIIb) - first ascent by Wulf Scheffler in 1956</p><br>
<p>Buntschillernde Seifenblase (IXb) - first ascent by Bernd Arnold</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p>Der Falkenstein, Aus der Geschichte eines Kletterfelsens in der Sächsischen Schweiz, Neisse Verlag 2001,</p><br>
<p>The North Shore of Lake Superior runs from Duluth, Minnesota, United States, at the southwestern end of the lake, to Thunder Bay and Nipigon, Ontario, Canada, in the north to Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, in the east. The shore is characterized by alternating rocky cliffs and cobblestone beaches, with forested hills and ridges through which scenic rivers and waterfalls descend as they flow to Lake Superior.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-colonization</h3><br>
<p>Lake Superior was settled by Native Americans about 8000 BC when the Wisconsin Glaciers began to retreat. By 500 BC the Laurel people had established settlements in the area and had begun to trade metal with other native peoples. The Laurel people were animists and probably created many of the pictographs present on rock faces along the North Shore and other Canadian rock faces in order to communicate with spirits.</p><br>
<p>In the 12th century, on the easternmost portion of the North Shore, the ancestors of the Ojibwa migrated into the area. These people left behind small pits dug in the ground which archaeologists now call Pukaskwa Pits. On the Minnesota portion of the North Shore there are only three archaeological sites, so it cannot be determined who lived there at the time.</p><br>
<p>By the 18th century the Ojibwa had settled the length of the North Shore approximately as far as the modern Canadian–Minnesota Border. The Minnesota portion of the North Shore was settled mostly by the Cree and the Dakota lived to the south.</p><br>
<h3>Fur trade</h3><br>
<p>The first white explorer to reach Lake Superior was Frenchman Étienne Brûlé who was sent out by Samuel de Champlain to search for the Northwest Passage in 1623 or 1624. His exploration allowed Champlain to create the first map of the lake in 1632.</p><br>
<p>Charles Raymbault and Isaac Jogues, Jesuit missionaries, were the next significant explorers, who tried to establish a more permanent missionary post further west but only got as far as Sault Ste. Marie. In 1658 two French explorers, Pierre-Esprit Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers, became the first whites to circumnavigate Lake Superior by sailing south along the North Shore. When they returned, they brought a flotilla of Native Americans with fur pelts, beginning interest in the fur trade in the Lake Superior region.</p><br>
<p>Conflicts between native tribes began to escalate toward war during this period when an alliance of Anishinaabe tribes was formed and defeated the Dakota in a battle west of Sault Sainte Marie in 1662. This warfare between the tribes along Lake Superior prevented European trade in the area for several years.</p><br>
<p>In 1670, the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company was founded, which began the fur trade nonetheless. In the late 1670s, Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut, helped negotiate a more permanent peace between these tribes, thus providing safe trade across Lake Superior for the French. With this, the foundations for European settlement on the North Shore were laid. Fort Kaministiquia, around modern Thunder Bay, was established in 1683. In 1688 Jacques de Noyon became the first European to visit the present-day Boundary Waters Canoe Area region west of Lake Superior.</p><br>
<p>A war between Britain and France, followed by a sharp drop in fur prices, slowed exploration for several decades. In 1732 the French-Canadian La Vérendrye built Fort St. Pierre on Rainy Lake near the head of the Rainy River in order to gain access to the west.</p><br>
<p>In 1763 according to the terms of the Treaty of Paris, the British took possession of all French holdings east of the Mississippi River, including the North Shore. In 1784 the North West Company, the newly organized rival to the Hudsons Bay Company, started moving traders into its new fort at Grand Portage. With new headquarters on the North Shore, the North West Company began to build 40 new forts and ports all along the North Shore and northern Minnesota. In 1821 the North West Company was forced to merge with the Hudsons Bay Company.</p><br>
<p>With the eventual depletion of fur-bearing animals, the fur trade and associated settlement diminished.</p><br>
<h3>Early American settlement</h3><br>
<p>When American settlers moved westward, the governments of the United States and Britain began to dispute the border between the territory that would become Minnesota and the territory which would become Ontario. Many geologic surveys were taken because of these disputes, which revealed the rich mineral resources in this area. In 1854 the LaPointe Treaty ceded all Ojibwa lands to the United States. Because of this white settlers moved into the region in order to mine the natural resources, thus beginning American settlements on the Minnesotan portion of the North Shore. Land claims were made near modern Duluth, Knife River, Beaver Bay, Buchanan, Burlington Bay, French River, Stewart River and Silver Creek. Ninety-nine fishermen had settled in northern Minnesota by 1857, when an economic panic caused most of the claims to be abandoned. In 1865 the Vermilion Lake Gold Rush brought a new wave of settlement to the North Shore.</p><br>
<p>American settlement began in earnest in 1869. When the Lake Superior & Mississippi Railroad was built, people could move across the country in days instead of months. In 1869 Duluth grew from 14 families in January to a population of 3,500 in July. Construction on the Duluth Harbor was started to allow steamboat shipping between Duluth and Buffalo, Detroit and Chicago. The town of Beaver Bay was founded in 1869 as a fishing community, and Grand Marais was founded by Henry Mayhew and Sam Howenstine in 1871. Another panic in 1873 put an end to this growth, and Duluth shrunk to a population of 1,300.</p><br>
<p>In the 1880s, growth began again in Minnesota, and significant growth began for the first time in Canada. The Canadian Pacific Railway was opened in 1881 and brought a wave of settlers from the west. In Minnesota, Two Harbors was founded and became a major iron ore port and a source of labor for the inland iron mines on the North Shore. Besides mining, fishing became the other major industry of North Shore communities. In 1885, 195 commercial fishermen lived in Duluth. Duluth fish catches increased to a peak of 10,000 tons of fish caught in 1915. It has since declined. Current annual fish catches have fallen to under 1,000 tons per year.</p><br>
<h3>Iron industry</h3><br>
<p>In 1875 Philadelphia financier Charlemagne Tower, who owned extensive interests in the Northern Pacific Railroad, began to investigate the possibility of iron mining inland from the North Shore. (Vast quantities of banded-iron formations had been deposited about in the Animikie Group.) Although the scare of 1873 had depressed the price of iron to $5.50 per ton, by the 1880s it was back to about $9.25 per ton. Tower started acquiring land in the Vermilion Range, where ore had an iron content of 69%. Tower also acquired the rights to the Duluth Iron & Railway Co., which entitled him to 10 square miles (26 km) of land for every mile (1.6 km) of rail built between Duluth and Agate Bay (Two Harbors), 25 miles (40 km) northeast along the shore.</p><br>
<p>Speculators bought up land at Agate Bay; the rail line was not completed until 1887, so all travel to Agate Bay was originally by steamboat. Between 1884 and 1885 two large wooden loading docks were built in the harbor for shipping iron. In 1887, when the railroad was completed, the Minnesota Iron Company owned 95.7 miles (154.0 km) of track, 26,800 acres (108 km²) of property, 13 locomotives, 340 cars, the loading docks at Two Harbors and five pit mines.</p><br>
<p>This growth attracted the interest of Henry H. Porter, a Chicago railroad owner. He bought 25,000 acres (100 km²) of land further up the North Shore than Tower’s holdings around Two Harbors and Tower, an inland mining settlement named after its founder. Porter coerced Tower into selling the Minnesota Iron Company for 8.5 million dollars. He built Chandler Mine, Pioneer Mine, Zenith Mine, Savoy Mine and Sibley Mine between 1889 and 1899. In 1896 the iron traveling through Two Harbors exceeded 2,000,000 tons. Two Harbors steadily built more docks and replaced the wooden docks with concrete over the course of the next several decades.</p><br>
<p>Iron production continued steadily for many more decades; by the 1950s traditional iron mines had exhausted most of their resources. It had been known for many years that northern Minnesota had an ore called taconite, which could be refined into iron through a process called beneficiation. A taconite processing plant was built further north along the North Shore at Silver Bay, and it quickly became the major taconite shipping port. Minnesota taconite produces over half of the iron mined in Minnesota at the present date.</p><br>
<h3>Lumber industry</h3><br>
<p>Northern Minnesota is essentially covered with one large forest. Although the potential for a lumber industry was recognized early in the course of European settlement, the distances that it would have to be shipped made it uneconomical. However, in the 1880s Michigan exhausted most of its forests.</p><br>
<p>With the new branches of the Northern Pacific Railroad running through Duluth, lumber industries moved into Wisconsin and Minnesota. Duluth and Superior began milling large amounts of lumber to be shipped by rail; but in the 1890s, Duluth began shipping logs out across the lake to the east. Lumberjacks in turn began moving north and rafting logs down to Duluth along the lake from Knife River, Castle Danger, Grand Marais, and the Pigeon River.</p><br>
<p>Because of conservation efforts, most of the forests along the North Shore are now protected from deforestation, essentially ending the lumber industry. Duluth had only one remaining lumber mill by 1925, but it still receives shipments of pulpwood which are used in its paper mills.</p><br>
<h3>Tourism</h3><br>
<p>In 1855 when a lock system first allowed steamboats onto the lake, rich Americans from the east began to travel onto Lake Superior for recreational purposes. The rich would then canoe or be ferried from Duluth up the North Shore and would stay in hunting and fishing camps.</p><br>
<p>In the 1920s, the North Shore highway was built, which helped make the North Shore accessible by land. At the same time commercial fishermen began to go out of business as catches declined. Many of these fishermen built cabins and resorts, which were inhabited by more rich people on recreational trips. Certain exclusive clubs also bought land for resort and sport purposes. The Naniboujou Club Lodge was built to attract an exclusive clientele, and a group of Duluth businessmen, the Tettegouche Club, bought 9,346 acres (37.8 km²) of land for use as a private retreat.</p><br>
<p>During the early-20th century, the government decided that continued exploitation of the North Shore would destroy it. In 1909 Teddy Roosevelt organized the Superior National Forest, putting over 3-million acres (12,000 km²) of the forests between the North Shore and the Canada–US border under protection. The government of Minnesota slowly began to acquire the lands which became the modern North Shore state parks. The first park to be formally organized was Jay Cooke State Park in 1915. In the 1930s the Civilian Conservation Corps established several camps organized along the North Shore and built rustic structures in what would become several North Shore state parks.</p><br>
<p>Today the North Shore Scenic Drive remains a popular tourist route, starting at the historic Glensheen Mansion, passing several state parks, all the way to Grand Marais.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The North Shore lies on the north side of the Midcontinent Rift System which ran 1,300 miles (2,000 km) northwest from Michigan, through what is now Lake Superior, and southwest again into Kansas. As the granitic crust was torn apart by continental drift, lava flowed out from 30–60 miles (50–100 km) under the crust and formed a basalt crust instead. Tectonic forces were not strong enough to continue to separate the two sides of the continental rift; when the rifting stopped, the lava cooled and the heavy crust sank and was filled with sediment.</p><br>
<p>During recent glaciations, a large amount of the basalt and sandstone, which erode much more easily than granite, was removed by the glaciers. This formed the rough, rugged shoreline on the North Shore today. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind eroded igneous material, much of which covers the rocky beaches on the North Shore. The Wisconsin side of the basin and the bottom of the basin filled with the residue from the eroded sandstone and thus are sandy beaches today.</p><br>
<p>The melting water from the retreat of the glaciers ran into the basin and began to fill, forming the Great Lakes. The shoreline at its maximum reached over 500 feet (150 m) above its current height, and at its minimum fell to 250 feet (75 m) below its current level. When the levels of Lake Michigan and Lake Huron fell 2,000 years ago, it created rapids at Sault Sainte Marie, which restricted the release of water from Lake Superior and brought the shoreline to its present level.</p><br>
<p>The modern shoreline is composed of basalt lava flows. In the south, near Duluth, other materials, such as slate, greywacke and sandstone, are found a short distance inland; however in the north, the entire bedrock made of basalt and gabbro is exposed in patches miles from shore. When the bedrock hits the surface of the lake at a shallow enough angle, the beach is covered with washed up rocks. When it hits the lake at a steep angle, it breaks off and makes sharp cliffs ending at the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<h3>Minnesota</h3><br>
<p>Duluth</p><br>
<p>Highway 61 and the North Shore Scenic Drive</p><br>
<p>Glensheen Mansion</p><br>
<p>Two Harbors</p><br>
<p>Superior National Forest</p><br>
<p>Superior Hiking Trail</p><br>
<p>Schroeder</p><br>
<p>North Country Trail</p><br>
<p>Grand Marais</p><br>
<p>Gunflint Trail</p><br>
<p>Lutsen Mountains ski resorts</p><br>
<h4>State parks and national monument</h4><br>
<p>To people who camp in the state parks along Minnesota&#39;s North Shore, the term North Shore refers to both the shore of the lake and all the rivers which run into the lake. Thus there are numerous "North Shore state parks," most of which are not actually on the lakeshore, and several of which are not even particularly close to it.</p><br>
<p>Jay Cooke State Park is on the Saint Louis River, which enters into Lake Superior through the Duluth harbor several miles away.</p><br>
<p>Gooseberry Falls State Park has campgrounds fairly close to Lake Superior, but its main attractions are the five falls on the Gooseberry River and the Gitchi Gummi Trail, which overlooks the north face of the river gorge.</p><br>
<p>Split Rock Lighthouse State Park is popular for its historic Split Rock Lighthouse. Since the lighthouse is separately run by the Minnesota Historical Society, there is a separate fee for admittance.</p><br>
<p>Tettegouche State Park lies at the base of the Baptism River and is famous for the high cliffs overlooking Lake Superior. Palisade Head, the highest cliff in Minnesota, is accessible outside the main entrance to the state park, although a slightly smaller area of lake cliffs, Shovel Point, is within the main park.</p><br>
<p>George H. Crosby Manitou State Park is the only state park on Lake Superior to offer only backpacking campsites, all of which are on the Manitou River at some distance from the lakeshore.</p><br>
<p>Temperance River State Park has camping very close to the shore of Superior. The main attractions are the falls on the Temperance River.</p><br>
<p>Cascade River State Park is well known for the seven cascading waterfalls on the Cascade River.</p><br>
<p>Judge C. R. Magney State Park is the northernmost place along Minnesotas North Shore where people can camp. It contains the Devils Kettle waterfall on the Brule River. The river splits into two streams right before the waterfall, and one continues down the river while the other disappears into a hole in the rock face of the waterfall called the Kettle.</p><br>
<p>Grand Portage State Park, which is near but not the same as Grand Portage National Monument, includes the High Falls on the Pigeon River which separates Minnesota and Ontario. Unlike every other state park on Minnesota&#39;s North Shore, there are no camping accommodations in this park.</p><br>
<p>Grand Portage National Monument is home to a reconstruction of a historic fur trading post as well as traditional Ojibwa culture. There is no vehicle-accessible camping in the national monument.</p><br>
<h3>Ontario</h3><br>
<p>Thunder Bay, Ontario</p><br>
<p>Lake Nipigon</p><br>
<p>Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario</p><br>
<h4>Provincial and national parks</h4><br>
<p>The majority of Ontario Provincial Parks are undeveloped nature reserves with no formal campgrounds or visitor centers.</p><br>
<p>Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is a 10,000 km² conservation area created in 2007.</p><br>
<p>Pigeon River Provincial Park lies on the Canadian side of the Pigeon River.</p><br>
<p>Sleeping Giant Provincial Park is a large natural environment park on the Sibley Peninsula which offers camping.</p><br>
<p>Shesheeb Bay Provincial Park is a small nature reserve park on the Black Bay Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>Gravel River Provincial Park is a small undeveloped nature reserve on the Gravel River running into Lake Superior.</p><br>
<p>Rainbow Falls Provincial Park offers camping.</p><br>
<p>Prairie River Mouth Provincial Park is a nature reserve park which is totally undeveloped except for one footpath.</p><br>
<p>Neys Provincial Park is on a remote peninsula jutting into Lake Superior which offers camping.</p><br>
<p>Red Sucker Point Provincial Park is a small nature reserve on the shore of Lake Superior.</p><br>
<p>Lake Superior Provincial Park is by far the largest provincial park on the lakeshore. It is a natural environment park with full, modern camping facilities and many different inland trails.</p><br>
<p>Montreal River Provincial Park is a nature reserve which is only accessible by boat.</p><br>
<p>Pancake Bay Provincial Park is a recreation park with camping facilities. The location of the Edmund Fitzgerald shipwreck is near the park.</p><br>
<p>Batchawana Bay Provincial Park is a recreation park on a rare sandy beach (most North Shore beaches are stone) with day use facilities.</p><br>
<p>Pukaskwa National Park is the largest national park in Ontario. It has limited camping facilities.</p><br>
<p>The Tanzawa Mountains are a mountain range in the Kantō region, in Japan. It covers the northwestern part of Kanagawa Prefecture and touches the prefectural borders of Shizuoka Prefecture to the west and the Yamanashi Prefecture to the north.</p><br>
<h2>Mountains</h2><br>
<p>Mount Hiru 1,673m (蛭ヶ岳 Hiru-ga-take)</p><br>
<p>Mount Fudō 1,614m (不動ノ峰 Fudō-no-mine)</p><br>
<p>Mount Hinokiboramaru 1,601m (檜洞丸 Hinokibora-maru)</p><br>
<p>Mount Tanzawa 1,567m (丹沢山 Tanzawa-san)</p><br>
<p>Mount Tō 1,491m (塔ノ岳 Tō-no-dake)</p><br>
<p>Mount Shindainichi 1,340m (新大日 Shin-dainichi)</p><br>
<p>Mount Ōyama 1,252m (大山 Ō-yama)</p><br>
<h2>Activities and sites</h2><br>
<h3>Hiking</h3><br>
<p>Climbers come from various parts of Japan, but there have been a growing number of international climbers. The mountain range offers numerous moderate to strenuous trails for hikers. The most popular peaks among climbers are Mount Tō (塔ノ岳) and Mount Ōyama (大山) which are located in the eastern part of the Mountains, mainly due to their easier transportation access from Yabitsu Pass. However, the tallest mountain in these mountains is Mount Hiru, which is 1,673 m. In comparison, Mount Tō is 1,491m (4,891 ft) high and Mount Ōyama is 1,252 m high. The western part is less often visited, but offers the opportunity of river trekking or sawanobori (a form of mountaineering).</p><br>
<h3>Fishing</h3><br>
<p>Fishing is another popular activity within the rivers of Tanzawa. Different types of fish can be caught such as trout and yamame.</p><br>
<h3>Sites</h3><br>
<p>The Tanzawa Mountains are most accessible by Kanagawa Route 70, which runs between Hadano and Miyagase. The highest point of the route is Yabitsu Pass, approximately 11 km from Hadano. Towards the middle of the route is Kiyokawa Village, which offers lodging, camping, and fishing, and also has a trailhead for hiking the different mountains. Various other campsites can be found along Route 70. Another place of interest is Lake Miyagase, which is man-made and filled with a dam.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife and flora</h2><br>
<p>The landscape of the Tanzawa Mountains consists of numerous rivers, streams, forests, mountains, valleys, and ridges. Like much of Japan, the moist climate allows for lush vegetation which offers habitats for a variety of wildlife. The forestry is mixed and consisting of nearly half of the trees coniferous and the other half deciduous. The coniferous trees include Japanese cedar (杉) and Hinoki cypress (檜), and are mainly seen in the lower altitudes near the valleys. The deciduous trees include Japanese mountain maple (山紅葉) and Japanese beech, and are more common in the higher altitudes. Various types of flowers can be found throughout the year, such as Rhododendron.</p><br>
<p>The area is populated with Sika Deer (鹿), Japanese raccoon dog (狸), Japanese flying squirrel and Japanese Serow. There are also hundreds of species of birds such as Kingfisher. Along the river banks, frogs and lizards can be commonly found.</p><br>
<p></revision></p><br>
<p>Tettegouche State Park, in the United States, is a Minnesota state park on the north shore of Lake Superior 58 mi northeast of Duluth in Lake County on scenic Minnesota Highway 61. The parks name stems from the Tettegouche Club, an association of local businessmen which purchased the park in 1910 from the Alger-Smith Lumber Company. The clubs members protected the area until its sale in 1971 to the deLaittres family. In 1979, the state of Minnesota acquired 3,400 acre from the Nature Conservancy, including Tettegouche Camp. The land was added to Baptism River State Park, which was renamed Tettegouche State Park.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>The park is 9,346 acre, and contains six inland lakes (four of which support northern pike and one supports walleye fishing), four waterfalls, and a beach on Lake Superior. The 70 ft waterfall High Falls located on the Baptism River is the highest waterfall located entirely within Minnesota. The park contains 22 mi of hiking trails, 12 mi of ski trails, and access to the Superior Hiking Trail. Tettegouche is bordered to the north by the Finland State Forest and shares the Red Dot motorized trail with it. The trail is for use by all-terrain vehicles and snowmobiles and is the only ATV trail in a state park.</p><br>
<p>The park is one of only four state parks in Minnesota offering rock climbing. Both Shovel Point and Palisade Head cliffs are popular spots offering climbing directly over Lake Superior.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>Common wildlife seen at the park includes the white-tail deer, hawk, woodpecker, red squirrel, snowshoe hare, weasel, and beaver. Other wild life that can be seen are moose, black bear, river otter, and red fox. On occasion, the timber wolf, coyote, fisher, marten and northern flying squirrel can be seen by visitors. The park also has peregrine falcons that nest in the cliffs along Lake Superior.</p><br>
<h2>Amenities</h2><br>
<p>The park contains several camping areas, with drive-in, cart-in, walk-in and kayak-in sites. The Tettegouche Camp, on Mic Mac Lake, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. and features four hike-to cabins. One drive-up cabin is available at Illgen Falls. There is a visitor center open year-round. The campgrounds feature flush toilets, showers, and public phones. Firewood and ice can be purchased at the campground. The cabins and campsites can be booked through. Five picnic areas are also available with fire rings and tables.</p><br>
<p>Callao Cave is one of the limestone caves located in the municipality of Peñablanca, Cagayan province, in the Philippines. The seven-chamber show cave is one of 300 caves that dot the area and the best known natural tourist attractions of the province. The town is named as Peñablanca  for the presence of white limestone rocks in the area. Callao Cave is located in the Barangays of Magdalo and Quibal in Peñablanca about 24 km northeast of Tuguegarao City, the capital of the Province of Cagayan.</p><br>
<p>Callao and the other caves are situated in the western foothills of the Northern Sierra Madre Mountains of the Philippines. They are situated within the Peñablanca Protected Landscape and Seascape, which stretches from the caves to the eastern shores of Peñablanca town of the Pacific Ocean.</p><br>
<h2>Protection status</h2><br>
<p>Callao Cave was visited by American Governor-General Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. in 1932 who under his term created the National Park system of the country with the passing of Act no. 3195 in 1932. Callao Cave was one of the earliest national parks of the country when it was established on July 16, 1935 by Proclamation no. 827. The Callao Cave National Park encompassed an area of 192 hectare of land.</p><br>
<p>With the passing of the NIPAS Act of 1992 that revamped the protected areas of the country, the Callao National Park was reclassified but enlarged by Proclamation no. 416 on June 29, 1994. The protected area was reestablished as the Peñablanca Protected Landscape.</p><br>
<p>In 2003 upon the recommendation of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (Philippines) (DENR), the protected area was further enlarged to include certain parcels of land in the public domain. Proclamation 416 no. was amended by Proclamation no. 484, signed by President Arroyo on October 6, 2003. The law enlarged the park to 118,781.58 hectare and renamed as the Peñablanca Protected Landscape and Seascape (PPLS).</p><br>
<p>The protected area is particularly described as bounded on the North and East of Public Forest under FR-1011 per Proclamation No. 584 dated July 8, 1940; on the South by Callao Reforestation Project and on the West by Block I, Alienable and Disposable of Cagayan Project No. 13-C, Certified on February 27, 1923.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>More than 300 caves dot the protected area, 75 of which have been documented by the National Museum since 1977.</p><br>
<p>Callao Cave is the premier attraction in the Peñablanca Protected Landscape and Seascape. It is the most accessible of all the caves, its entrance is reached by climbing 184 concrete steps. The Callao cave system is composed of seven chambers, each with natural crevices above that let streams of light to get into the cave, serving as illumination for the otherwise dark areas of the place. Previously, there were reported nine caves in the system, but an earthquake in the 1980s cutoff the last two chambers.</p><br>
<p>The first chamber of the show cave is the largest room with a width of about 50 m and a height of 36 m. The cathedral-like room has been turned into a chapel by the local people. A rock formation serves as the altar of the chapel lit by a stream of light coming from a rooftop opening. The conditions inside the caves have caused the formation of stalactites and stalagmites, more so in the deeper chambers. Several spectacular speleothems or formations are found inside the cave like flowstones, glittering dripstones, cave curtains, crystal helictites, columns, etc.</p><br>
<h2>Classification</h2><br>
<p>Callao Cave is classified by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources as a Class II cave. This describes caves with areas that have hazardous conditions and contain sensitive geological, archaeological, cultural, historical and biological values or high quality ecosystems. Such caves are open to experienced spelunkers or caving enthusiasts and guided visits, although some portions may be closed seasonally or permanently for conservation purposes.</p><br>
<p>The Bat Cave near Callao Cave is a Class III cave meaning they are generally safe for inexperienced visitors. They have no known threatened species within, nor any archaeological, geological, historical or cultural values. Economic activities, such as collection of guano and edible bird&#39;s nest, are allowed in such caves.</p><br>
<h2>Callao Man</h2><br>
<p>Callao man refers to fossilized remains discovered inside Callao Cave in 2007 by Armand Salvador Mijares. Specifically, the find consisted of a single 61 mm metatarsal which, when dated using uranium series ablation, was found to be at least about 67,000 years old. If definitively proven to be remains of Homo sapiens, it would antedate the 47,000-year-old remains of Tabon Man to become the earliest human remains known in the Philippines, and one of the oldest human remains in the Asia Pacific. It has been noted by researchers that Callao Man was probably under four feet tall. Researchers also believe that Aetas, mountain dwellers today on Luzon Island, could be descendants of the Callao Man.</p><br>
<h2>Other caves</h2><br>
<p>Other pristine and undisturbed caves with living rock formations in the area include Jackpot, Laurente, Odessa-Tumbali, Quibal, Roc, San Carlos and Sierra Caves, among others. These caves can be explored with guides from Sierra Madre Outdoor Club, Adventures and Expedition Philippines Inc., and North Adventurer. Daily circadian flight of bats from the Bat Cave occur at dusk.</p><br>
<h3>Jackpot Cave</h3><br>
<p>Jackpot Cave in Sitio Tumallo, Bgy. Quibal also Peńablanca is allegedly the country’s second deepest cave with a surveyed depth of about 115 m and a surveyed length of 355 m. It has a walking passage, winding streams and various-sized pools, multi-depth shafts and drops for lots of rope works.</p><br>
<h3>Odessa-Tumbali Cave</h3><br>
<p>The Odessa-Tumbali Cave System, also called Abbenditan Cave by the local residents, is one of the longest cave system in the Philippines. Its estimated length is about 12.6 to 15 km with only about 7.65 km fully explored. The cave has five different entrances and is rated by spelunkers as difficult for its narrow and flood-prone passages. The cave have various formations, passageways, lakes, and canals that provides for excellent wet sport spelunking and great opportunities for cave photography. The cave is also home to a variety of wildlife. It can be explored with guides from the Sierra Madre Outdoor Club (SMOC). The cave is located in Sitio Abbenditan in Barangay Quibal also in Peñablanca.</p><br>
<p>To get to the Odessa-Tumbali includes hiking for about 7 km from Callao to get to the entrance then rappelling about 30 m into a sinkhole.</p><br>
<h3>San Carlos Cave</h3><br>
<p>San Carlos Cave is one of the toughest cave in the country to conquer as spelunkers require a lot of cave crawling. A chamber called Ice Cream Parlor contains cluster of white stalagmites that resemble scooped ice cream. The John the Baptist chamber has a sump where one has to take a deep breath and swim to the other side of the chamber. Sharp and rough stones could scratch skin and tear clothing. San Carlos requires a lot of swimming because more than half the cave is covered by cold running subterranean river.</p><br>
<h3>Sierra Cave</h3><br>
<p>Sierra Cave has two entrances - one for tourists and another for experienced cavers. The biggest challenge is crawling through a very low and narrow opening called Celica’s Passage. Cavers though are rewarded by formations inside that include flowstones, columns and draperies.</p><br>
<h2>Other activities</h2><br>
<p>The Pinacanauan River bisects the protected area and the limestone formations. The base of Callao Cave is located along the river bank. The pristine river is conducive for river rafting, boating, kayaking, fishing and swimming while the nearby mountains are perfect for trekking and mountaineering.</p><br>
<h2>Development</h2><br>
<p>The Callao Cave Eco-Tourism Zone is being promoted by the locals as the Caving Adventure Capital of the Philippines since it has more than 300 caves including the mother Callao cave. To accelerate the development of the Callao Cave ETZ, the Provincial Tourism Office of Cagayan has tied up with several Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) such the Sierra Madre Outdoor Club (SMOC), Cagayan visitors bureau, souvenir makers and other interested investors to help make Callao Caves tourist zone more develop and beautiful. One of the projects they established with Cagayan visitors bureau is the establishment of a visitor center at the cottage area.</p><br>
<p>The SMOC also assists tourists in recreational activities like caving, spelunking, mountain climbing, trekking, kayaking and rappelling. swimming, circadian flight viewing and picnicking. The group also offers their facilities for tourism whenever needed. Like the souvenir makers display souvenir items at the cave site.</p><br>
<p>The Department of Tourism also gave a boat and a floating picnic house to the residents of the place for a livelihood. The office also augmented the trainings and seminars conducted by the provincial tourism office to the tourist guides, guards, and personnel manning the zone. The tourism office were also arranging some partnerships with other organizations and agencies to rebuild the deteriorating facilities of the Callao Caves’ cottages for trainings, seminars, conventions and other uses.</p><br>
<p>As of 2013, the Callao Caves Resort located across Pinacanauan River from the caves, is the only accommodation available in the Callao Cave Tourism Zone.</p><br>
<h2>Road improvement</h2><br>
<p>For the fiscal year 2012, the Department of Public Works and Highways (DWPH) and the Department of Tourism (DOT) were allocated ₱100-million by the Philippine government for the improvement of Peñablanca-Callao Cave Road, the only road to the caves. The scope of the joint project involves the widening of 8 km including asphalting. The project is one of the two road projects approved to boost the tourism industry in Cagayan Valley Region or Region II. The DPWH and DOT are mandated to develop and enhance road networks leading to tourism sites by virtue of Republic Act No. 9593 or Tourism Act of 1999. The development of the road network leading to the tourist spots will accelerate development activities in the province and nearby areas.</p><br>
